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CHAPTER II
Executive
Summary
SOCIETAL BENEFITS FROM CHEMISTRY
Chemistry provides fundamental understandings needed to deal with many
societal needs, including many that determine our quality of life and our
economic strength.
New Processes
The U.S. chemical industry has a current $12 billion positive balance of trade.
Continued competitiveness depends upon constant improvement of existing
processes and introduction of new ones. Advances in chemical catalysis and
synthesis will be key to maintaining our current position of world leadership.
(See Section ITI-A.)
More Energy
Ninety-two percent of our present energy consumption is based upon chemical
technologies; this will remain true well into the 21st century. However, new
chemistry-based energy sources will have to be tapped. They will include
low-grade fuels for which better control of chemical reactivity is needed so that
we can protect the environment while providing energy at reasonable cost. (See
Section ITI-B.)
New Materials
The next two decades will bring many changes in the materials we use,
including the materials in which we are clothed, housed, and transported.
Chemistry will play an increasingly vital role in this interdisciplinary field
because advances will depend upon ability to tailor new substances, including
polymers, to replace and outperform traditional or scarce materials. (See
Section ITI-C.)
6
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
More Food
To increase world food supply, we need improvements in the production and
preservation of food, soil conservation, and the use of photosynthesis. In
collaboration with contiguous disciplines, chemistry plays a central role as we
seek to clarify in detail the chemistry of biological life cycles. Once clarified they
can be nurtured and controlled, while undesired side effects are avoided through
chemical identification and synthesis of hormones, growth regulators, phero-
mones, self-defense structures, and nutrients. (See Section {V-A.)
Better Health
All life processes birth, growth, reproduction, aging, mutation, death are
manifestations of chemical change. Chemistry is now poised to clarify such
complex biological processes at the molecular level. Hence it is making
important contributions to physiology and medicine through rational drug
design and, then, through synthesis of new compounds that promote health and
alleviate specific ailments such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, Parkinson's
disease, cancer, and disorders of the central nervous and immune systems. (See
Section TV-B.)
Biotechnologies
Remarkable progress made in recent years by molecular biologists and
biochemists in genetic engineering has been built upon basic chemical princi-
ples that determine the chemical structures and functional relationships
between molecules and supermolecules (proteins, DNA) within biological
systems. Full realization of the potentialities of the projected new biotechnol-
ogies will increasingly depend upon molecular-level understandings. Chem-
ists will be active collaborators in the progress toward this goal. (See Section
{V-C.)
Better Environment
.
A mayor contemporary concern is protecting the environment in the face of
increasing world population, urbanization, and rising standards of living.
Elective strategies for safeguarding our surroundings require that we know
what's there, where it came from, and what we can do about it. Chemistry lies
at the heart of the answers to each of these questions: it can provide analytical
techniques that give early warning of emerging problems, recognition of their
origins, and access to alternative products and processes to ameliorate
undesired impacts. (See Section V-A.)
Continued Economic Competitiveness
The value of U.S. chemical sales is near $175 billion, and we have a positive
balance of trade. Preservation of our quality of life depends significantly upon
7
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8
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
maintaining this position of leadership. Our future competitiveness will be
dependent upon staying in the vanguard as the frontiers of chemistry change
and upon supplying to industry a stream of talented young scientists who have
been working at these frontiers and using state-of-the-art instrumentation. (See
Section V-B.)
Increased National Security
Key factors underlying national security are a healthy populace and a
dynamic, productive economy. In both spheres, chemistry plays an essential
role. In addition, the nation must be able to deter armed conflict. Again,
chemistry is a vital contributor; it enters all areas of defense from propulsion,
weapons materials, and classical munitions to the most advanced strategic
concepts. (See Section V-C.)
INTELLECTUAL FRONTIERS IN CHEMISTRY
Fortunately, this is a time of intellectual ferment in chemistry deriving from
our increasing ability to probe and understand the elemental steps of chemical
change and, at the same time, to deal with molecular complexity. Powerful
instrumental techniques are a crucial dimension. We can anticipate exciting
discoveries on a number of frontiers of chemistry.
Chemical Kinetics
Over the next three decades, we will see advances in our understanding of
chemical kinetics that will match those connected with molecular structures
over the last three decades. Lasers by themselves have spectacularly expanded
experimental horizons for chemists. They can now probe chemical reactions on
a time scale that is short compared to the lifetime of any transient substances
that can be said to possess a molecular identity. Elementary reactions can be
dissected, first, through detailed control of energy content of reactants and,
then, through discrimination of energy distribution and recoil geometry among
the products. Pathways for energy movement between and within molecules can
now be experimentally tracked and theoretically resolved. These new avenues
of study will clarify the factors that govern temporal aspects of chemical change.
(See Section IlI-D.)
Chemical Theory
Chemistry is on the verge of a renaissance because of emerging ability to fold
experiment and theory together to design chemical structures with properties of
choice. With today's computers, accurate calculations can clarify transient
situations not readily accessible to experimental measurements, such as inter-
mediate steps in combustion processes. In some cases benefitting from the power
of computers, theoretical understandings are developing across chemistry,
including dynamics of reactive collisions, electron transfer reactions in solu-
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
tion, and statistical mechanical descriptions of the liquid state. (See Section
III-D.)
Catalysis
Developing insights fueled by an array of powerful instrumentation are now
moving catalysis from an art to a science. It is now possible to "see" molecules
as they react on catalytic surfaces. Metal-organic compounds with purposeful
steric specificity and reactivity can be prepared. Organic molecules with
predetermined surface conformations that simulate enzymatic architectures
can be synthesized. Coherence is appearing that encompasses surface, solution,
electrochemical, photochemical, and enzymatic catalysis. Fundamental ad-
vances in these various facets of catalysis are forthcoming that will have great
economic and technological impact. (See Sections III-A, III-B, V-D.)
Materials
Modern experimental techniques and chemical principles now permit system-
atic chemical strategies for discovery and design of novel materials. Hence,
chemists are increasingly joining and expanding the specialist communities
concerned with glasses, ceramics, polymers, alloys, and refractory materials.
Coming years wit] see entirely new structural materials, liquids with
orientational regularity, self-organizing solids, organic and ionic conductors,
acentric and refractory materials. Chemists will have a central position on the
most dramatic frontier of materials science, the design of molecular-scale
memory and electrical circuit devices. (See Sections III-C, V-B, V-D.)
Synthesis
Modern instrumental techniques greatly facilitate discovery and testing of
new reaction pathways and synthetic strategies. Our accelerating progress,
which extends from invention of new families of inorganic compounds to the
synthesis of ever-more complex organic structures, is erasing the border
between inorganic and organic chemistry. Reactivity control in metal-organic
molecules can now be achieved through insightful choice of molecular append-
ages; new soluble catalysts will result. Molecules with metal atom clusters at
their cores can be synthesized to link the chemistry of bulk metals to that of
simple metal-organic compounds. This linkage relates the action of dissolved
and surface catalysts. Organic molecules of biological complexity can be
structurally identified and precisely replicated; this opens the way to tailored
biological function. (See Sections IlI-D, IV-A, IV-B, IV-D.)
Life Processes
The recent striking advances in biology have exposed problems of revolution-
ary significance that require analysis in terms of molecular interactions. With
its ability to deal with molecular complexity, chemistry can play its role in
investigating and clarifying the molecular origins of biological processes.
9
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10
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Working hypotheses for biological functions can be tested through deliberate
synthesis of tailored molecules: natural product analogs, chemotherapeutic
agents, proteins deliberately altered to provide new functions, genetic inserts.
This will move us closer to real understanding of the basic workings of life
processes in response to the strongest of human preoccupations, the nature and
preservation of life. (See Sections IV-B, IV-C, {V-D, V-B.)
Analytical Methods
Conceptual advances in detection, characterization, and quantification of
chemical species are benefitting chemistry and contiguous sciences on many
fronts. Incorporation of computers is a key factor. Analytical separations based
on a variety of chromatographic techniques are essential elements of the rapid
progress in identification and synthesis of natural products. Novel ionization
methods extend mass spectrometry to biologic macromolecules and other
nonvolatile solids. Surface analysis and electroanalytical methods are helping
to clarify important aspects of catalysis. Remote spectroscopic and a variety of
laser techniques are furnishing timely contributions to environmental monitor-
ing and protection. (See Sections V-A, V-D.)
PRIORITY AREAS IN CHEMISTRY (See Ch. VII.)
The strength of American science has been built by allowing creative'
working scientists to decide independently where the best prospects lie for
acquiring significant new knowledge. Many of the most far-reaching develop-
ments, both in concept and application, have come from unexpected directions.
Thus, to list priority areas carries the risk of closing off or quenching some
adventurous new directions with potential yet to be recognized.
Even so, it makes sense to concentrate some resources in specially promising
areas. This can be done if we regard our research support as an investment
portfolio designed to achieve maximum gain. A significant part of this invest-
ment should be directed toward consensually recognized priority areas but with
a flexibility that encourages evolution in these areas as new frontiers emerge.
A second substantial element in this portfolio should be support of creative
scientists who propose to explore new directions and new ideas. Finally, a third
element must be provision of the instrumentation and the infrastructure needed
to assure the cost effectiveness of the entire portfolio.
Where this balance will fall for each of the funding sources will vary.
Industrial research will weight heavily the currently recognized priority fron-
tiers. At the other extreme, NSF must encourage the new avenues from which
tomorrow's priority lists will be drawn. The other mission agencies should
structure their portfolios between those extremes. With such a balanced
portfolio in mind, the following priority areas and identified with the intent to
achieve the greatest intellectual and societal returns.
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EXECUTIVE SUAIMARY
Recommendation 1
Priority should be given to the following research frontiers:
A. Understanding Chemical Reactivity
B. Chemical Catalysis
C. Chemistry of Life Processes
D. Chemistry Around Us
E. Chemical Behavior Under Extreme Conditions
Recommendation 1 should be implemented through initiatives sponsored by
the relevant mission agencies, scaled by each agency in its own appropriate
balance with its support of creative scientists expected to explore new directions
and new ideas.
Initiative A. Understanding Chemical Reactivity
We propose an initiative to apply the full power of modern instrumental tech-
niques and chemical theory to the clarification of factors that control the rates of
reaction and to the development of new synthetic pathways for chemical change.
Principal objectives are to sustain international leadership for the United
States at the major fundamental frontier of chemistry control of the rates of
chemical reactions and to provide the basis for U.S. competitive advantage in
development of new processes, new substances, and new materials.
Initiative B. Chemical Catalysis
We propose an initiative to apply the techniques of chemistry to obtain a
molecular-level and coherent understanding of catalysis that encompasses het-
erogeneous, homogeneous, photo-, electro-, and artificial enzyme catalysis.
A principal objective here will be to provide the fundamental knowledge and
creative manpower required for the United states to maintain competitive
advantage in and to develop new catalysis-aided technologies.
Initiative C. Chemistry of Life Processes
We propose an initiative to develop and apply the techniques of chemistry to the
solution of molecular-level problems in life processes and to develop young re-
search scientists broadly competent in both chemistry and the biological sciences.
A principal objective of this initiative will be to accelerate the conversion of
qualitative biological information into techniques and substances useful in
biotechnologies, in human and animal medicine, and in agriculture.
Initiative D. Chemistry Around Us
We propose an initiative devoted to understanding the chemical make-up of our
environment and the complex chemicalprocesses that couple the atmosphere,
11
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12
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
oceans, earth, and biosphere, with special reference to man's conscious and
inadvertent disturbance of this global reactor. Analytical chemistry and reaction
dynamics define the core of this initiative.
Principal objectives of this initiative are to provide the basic chemical
understandings needed to protect our environment and to extend detection of
potentially hazardous substances well below toxicity bounds so that potential
problems can be anticipated and ameliorated long before hazard levels are
reached.
Initiative E. Chemical Behavior Under Extreme Conditions
We propose an initiative to explore chemical reactions under conditions far
removed from normal ambient conditions. Chemical behaviors under extreme
pressures, extreme temperatures, in gaseous "plasmas," and at temperatures near
absolute zero provide critical tests of our basic understandings of chemical
reactions and new routes toward discovery of new materials and new devices.
Principal objectives are to broaden our understanding of chemical change and
to lead to new materials that will have application under extreme conditions of
pressure, temperature, and exposure to specially challenging environments
(e.g., fusion reactors, reentry vehicle heat shields, superconducting magnets).
EXPLOITING THE OPPORTUNITIES IN CHEMISTRY
The extent to which our nation will be able to benefit directly from these
promising frontiers in chemistry is, in part, a matter of resources. This report
shows that existing patterns of funding are anachronistic and inadequate.
Average grant sizes are too small; for example, the average NSF grant
will barely support the research activities of two or three students, while an
active research group might range in size from six to sixteen (see Table VTI-S
and the discussion preceding it). Furthermore, the grants do not provide support
for the infrastructure nee(led to sustain the sophisticated scientific activities of
today's chemistry (electronic, computer, and laboratory technicians, machinists
and glass blowers, supplies). The inadequacy of support for "mid-cost" instru-
mentation (less than $1 million), both for shared use among several research
groups and for specialized and dedicated use, requires painful trade-offs that
tend to restrict capacity to fund new, young investigators entering chemistry.
(See Figure, p. 302.) The instrumentation crisis is exacerbated because univer-
sity chemistry departments are struggling to provide the operating and main-
tenance infrastructure needed to use this state-of-the-art equipment with
maximum cost effectiveness. (See Tables VIl-4 and VIl-6.)
The listing of opportunities and potential rewards to society that will flow
from them is impressive. That we cannot afford to lose these rewards is
underscored by the economic importance of chemistry. Business and industry
employ more doctoral chemists than the sum of those employed in the biological
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
sciences, mathematics, physics, and astronomy combined (see Appendix Table
A-41. Yet we find that the average federal investment in the crucial human
resource in chemistry is only one fifth as much per Ph.D. as in other comparably
important disciplines (see Table VTI-1 J. Without a more determined U.S.
commitment to the chemical sciences, there is substantial likelihood that our
leadership position will be preempted abroad.
Chemistry in Industry
The Chemistry and Allied Products industry invests heavily in its own
in-house research. This report should be of value to the industry as it decides
upon the amount and focus of its own research investment. In addition, U.S.
industry has an interest in the health and direction of university-based
fundamental research. Industrial progress and competitiveness also depend
upon access to a reservoir of fundamental knowledge constantly replenished by
university-based research and upon a stream of talented young scientists
familiar with the latest chemical frontiers and instrumental techniques. Hence,
industry furnishes direct support to university research. Though modest in total
(about $10 million each to chemistry and chemical engineering in 1983), it is
extremely important because it facilitates movement of new discoveries into
new applications and influences university research agendas.
Recommendation 2
New mechanisms and new incentives should be sought for
strengthening links between industrial and academic research.
RecornmencIation 3
Industry should increase its support for university fundamental
research in the chemical sciences. Tax incentives to encourage
such gains should be explored.
The Federal Role in Fundamental Research
Industry can engage in only a modest amount of the most fundamental and
adventurous research because the time horizon for application is remote. Yet,
this "high-risk" research offers the most far reaching benefits to society and the
intellectual basis for technological competitiveness. It is an appropriate place
for public investment.
This report displays an array of opening research frontiers rich in potential
for societal benefit. In this setting, an examination of funding patterns in a
variety of disciplines that depend upon sophisticated instrumentation reveals
that the federal investment in chemistry is not adequate and will not bring to
society the full benefits to be realized.
13
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14
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Recommendation 4
The federal investment in chemistry should be raised to be
commensurate with the practical importance of chemistry, both
economic ant! societal, and with the outstanding intellectual oppor-
tunities it now offers.
Chemistry and the NSF Mission
Chemistry supported by the NSF is judged on its potential for adding to our
understanding of nature. Since the most far-reaching technological changes
tend to stem from unpredictable discoveries, the fundamental research sup-
ported by NSF is critical to this country's long-range technological future. The
increasing dependence of our economy upon the health of our chemical industry
coupled with the exciting intellectual opportunities in chemistry justify a
considerably larger NSF support in all three of its crucial dimensions: shared
instrumentation, dedicated instrumentation, and grant size. Such support is
needed to assure a U.S. position of international leadership in the exploitation
of the rich opportunities before us.
Recommendation 5
(a) NSF should begin a 3-year initiative to increase its support
for chemistry by 25 percent per year for FY 1987, FY 198S, and FY
1989.
(b) The adcied increments should be directed toward! increasing
grant size, ensuring encouragement of young investigators, en-
hancing the shared instrumentation program, and increasing the
amount directed toward declicated instrumentation.
(c) NSF should build into its shared instrumentation program a
federal capital investment averaging at 80 percent of instrument
cost together with maintenance and oner~t.in~ route far ~ ~ veer
period after purchase.
Chemistry and the Department of Energy Mission
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ,7 ~ ~—
For at least the next quarter century, 90 percent of our still growing energy
use must come from chemical energy sources. At the same time, the quality and
character of feedstocks will be changing in ways that challenge existing
technologies and that make it harder to resolve society's concerns about
environmental pollution. To meet these challenges, the Department of Energy
currently invests in its Chemical Sciences Program only 5 percent and in its
Biological Energy Research Program less than 1 percent of the total resources
it directs toward 11 of its largest fundamental research programs. To assure our
future access to abundant and clean sources of energy over the next three
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
decades, DOE must make a much larger commitment to the chemical sciences.
This commitment must engage more fully both the DOE National Laboratories
and the larger chemistry community.
Recommendation 6
(a) The DOE should establish a major initiative in those areas of
chemistry relevant to the energy technologies of the future.
(b) In an appropriate number of our National Laboratories the
defined mission should be reshaped to include a major focus on one
or more of the chemistry areas crucial to energy technologies.
(c) University research programs in energy-relevant areas of
chemistry should be raised to be commensurate with those in the
National Laboratories.
(~) Incremental growth in these programs by a factor of about
2.o wild be needed to exploit the opportunities before them. For
cost effectiveness, this growth should be uniformly spread over the
next 5 years. A $22 million incremental growth in the FY 1986 DOE
chemistry budget would support an appropriate beginning.
Chemistry and the NIH Mission
Progress in both medicine and chemistry now makes it possible to interpret
complex biological events at the molecular level. Because of the ubiquitous role
of chemistry in human health, NIH provides substantial support to chemists
engaged in research at the broad interface of physiology/medicine/chemistry.
Chemistry research relevant to the NTH mission concentrates largely in the
Institute for General Medicinal Sciences. Characteristically, the grants are
modest in size, and the award success rates have fluctuated widely over the last
decade.
Recommendation 7
(4a) A fraction of any additional NIH funds in support of chem-
istry should be used to increase average grant size, including
grants for young investigators anal particularly for cross-
disciplinary collaborative programs that link expertise in chemis-
try with that in other health-science [lisciplines.
(b) NTH should vigorously continue its attempts to stabilize its
extramural grant program.
(c) NTH should maintain its extramural shared instrumentation
program at a level approximately equal to that of NSF. The initial
federal capital investment should include at least 80 percent of
instrument cost, and maintenance and operating costs should be
provide for 5 years after purchase.
15
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16
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Chemistry and the Department of Defense Mission
Chemistry plays a critical part in our national security. It not only strength-
ens our ability to deter and prevent armed conflict, it also contributes strongly
to the health of the economy and to the maintenance of the technical manpower
pool needed to develop and deploy our increasingly sophisticated defense
technologies. In the longer view, our future national security, our international
economic posture, and our technical manpower supply dictate DOD attention to
fundamental chemical research, including that conducted at universities. Yet
DOD support of fundamental research has grown very little over the last 5
years; its investment in university research does not fulfull DOD's desire
to maintain our manpower pool while providing indirect influence on univer-
sity research agendas toward promising chemistry areas key to our defense
posture.
Recommendation 8
(a) The percentage of the DOB R&D budget Erects to basic
(6.~) research should be increased to restore tile 1965 value of
percent.
(5> DOD SUppOFt for un:vers~Ly research ;n the chem~at sci-
enees said be raised to about 2o per¢erat of the total federal
Support for baste research through real growth a'` I percent per
year.
(~> Parallel growila Should be provided to DOl3 -use re-
search pro$rarr~s of the 6.! category ~n chemistry.
(~) Growib sho-~ici cor~cer~trate attent:~n on the special opportu-
n~es ream- ofl~d through chemistry ~n the following broad re-
search areas:
Stra~,:e and cram mater~ts
Ferris, propel:aP~tS, and exlplos:~-es
—ALn:oSp7~:e phenomena
—Chem:~: $~-~og:~! Cleanse
N-~@~: power and nuclear weapons emits
<~) ~~act:~n betw-~ra DGB Iabora~-~es and u~E~-~S:~eS
$~ 6C encouraged and leash.
for ~~ S. lit- COHtIHLC IcS I~StF~$~ p~ 3~6 ~~
fine 8,55~-~!~ 0; If [~ maintenance and oL~erar;~.
in' DO:3 I: exp;~e As '~-c suppo-+ new- co~-
^~on a~ ~enc`-at~on of ~FLl`-ersity research fac;~:es ~n part:cuTar~ty
~~ iti¢G~ Areas ~[ ~~e~ist~y.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Chemistry and the Department of Agriculture Mission
The USDA devotes only a small portion of its R&D budget to chemistry
research relevant to agriculture and animal health. But human needs are great,
so we can ill adore to miss the relevant opportunities offered by chemistry.
Recommendation 9
The Department of Agriculture should initiate a substantial
competitive grants program in chemistry with the aim of increas-
ing extramural support of fundamental research in chemistry
relevant to agriculture and animal health to an approximate par
with the Department's intramural program.
Chemistry and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Mission
The several initiatives proposed in this report present opportunities for
improvement of the safety, range, and effectiveness of future space operations.
Furthermore, NASA has unique capabilities for monitoring and mission-related
concern about the changing chemical compositions of the troposphere and the
stratosphere.
Recommendation 10
(a) The National Aeronautics ant} Space Administration should
maintain a substantial commitment to the understanding of atmo-
spheric chemistry.
(b) Increased attention should be clirected toward special oppor-
tunities relevant to operations in space:
—high energy propellants;
—chemical behavior under extreme conditions;
reaction kinetics and photochemistry under collision-free
conditions.
chemical aspects of life-sustenance in a closed system
analytical methods for compositional monitoring in both the
troposhere and the stratosphere
(c) NASA should more actively encourage academic chemists to
acIdress problems relevant to the NASA mission through compet-
itive grants for fundamental research.
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18
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Chemistry in the Environmental Protection Agency
The EPA has significant R&D programs specifically and properly directed
toward currently recognized environmental problems, and many of these
programs involve chemistry. This agency assumes a much less active role in
fundamental research relevant to its mission as epitomized by its tiny Explor-
atory Research program. This extramural program is now funded at $16M, less
than 0.4 percent of the $4.25B EPA total. The EPA should follow the pattern of
other federal mission agencies by defining those areas of research that underlie
its mission goals and stimulating the expansion of knowledge in those areas
through programs of fundamental research.
Recommendation 11
(a) EPA should increase the percentage of its R&D funds placed
in its Exploratory Research program and its commitment to
extramural fundamental research relevant to environmental prob-
lems of the future.
(b) EPA should encourage fundamental chemical research to
clarify reaction pathways open to molecules, atoms, and ions of
environmental interest.
(c) EPA should take a prominent role in support of long-range
research in analytical chemistry with emphasis on extension of
sensitivity limits, increase in detection selectivity, and exploration
of new concepts.
(~) EPA should have as a conscious and publicized goal the
detection of potentially undesired environmental constituents at
concentration levels far below known or expecter! toxicity limits.
Conclusion
In the next two decades there will be dramatic changes in our basic
understanding of chemical change and in our ability to marshal that under-
standing to accomplish deliberate purpose. The program presented here defines
a leadership role for the United States as these advances are achieved. The
rewards accompanying such leadership are commensurate with the prominent
role of chemistry in addressing society's needs, in ameliorating problems of our
technological age, and in sustaining our economic well-being. The costs of
falling behind are not tolerable.
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C: :
: :H ,MISTRY is a central science
that :responds to societal:needs.
It is critical in Man's attempt to. . .
: :
~ £lzscover:rlewprocesses:~
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:~:Beauty Is ~Only::Skin::Deep
Ever think of going into the gold-brick business? Just take a big hunk of gold
and a hacksaw and you've got a good-looking brick~with a nice heft. Unfortunately,
one such brick and you're talking~$140-150,00~0~! There's no room for mark-up. But
Suppose you get an ordinary brick (wholesale in South Jersey, 17¢!)~and~ just~coat
the surface with gold—the cost will come down a lot. And you'll have a beautiful
redbrick—well, at least "skin-deep."
So how much would such bare surface coatings cost? For openers, put a one-atom-
thick layer of gold atoms over the entire surface of~the brick. Let's see, 2 inches by
4 inches by 8 inches—gold ~ at $320 an ounce—one atom thick—
i ~ \ ~ i l ~ / / that'll~ be . . . 0.3¢ worth of gold. Wow! There, we've gotten at-
~ /
~ , :~ / tractive product at teetotal material cost of 17.3¢ (not~including
, _ .
pac caging · ~
' ~ ~: - That's pretty impre sive. It means that the outermost ayer
i ~ ~ ~ >~ ' (the surface) of a $150,000 piece of gold involves so few atoms
that they would cost less than a cent. Yet that miniscule fraction
of atoms on the surface of a piece of metal controls the chemistry of that piece. For
instance, these surface atoms are the ones that determine whether the metal surface
acts as a catalyst or not. And catalysts account, one way or another, for about 20
percent of our gross national product.
So what is a catalyst? It's a chemical substance that speeds up a chemical reaction
without itself getting into the act (i.e., it is not consumed while doing its thing). A
solid catalyst merely furnishes its surface as a meeting place for gaseous molecules.
For instance, when a molecule of methanol lands on a rhodium catalyst surface, it
usually sticks for a while (becomes adsorbed). Now, if a carbon monoxide molecule
happens to arrive, zingo, it reacts with an adsorbed methanol molecule and they
leave the surface as acetic acid. When methanol and carbon monoxide meet in the
gas phase, they won't even give each other the time of day. But~because of the
special environment provided by that thin layer of surface atoms on the rhodium
catalyst, methanol and carbon monoxide react so rapidly that 500,000 tons of com-
mercial acetic acid are made every year this way! This kind of speed-up might be
anywhere from a thousand-fold to a million-fold when things are working.
Because of such successes, chemists care a lot about how these catalytic gold bricks
do their job. What actually happens to that thin layer of adsorbed molecules as they
come and no on a catalytic metal surface? Unfortunately, that's where the skin-
~ ,. .. .
deep principle works against us. lt there 1sn t much on the surface, there 1sn t much
to see.
But nowadays, we have several powerful instruments with which we can learn
about the special properties of the skin of a metal. These instruments also let us
watch molecules as they lodge on the surfaces of catalysts like platinum and rhodium
and many others. We can see how the molecules are chemically changed by the
metallic skin to make them more reactive when a suitable reaction partner comes
along. So chemists are beginning to understand how to design these catalytic gold
bricks to do whatever we want. Right now, every gallon of your gasoline began as
a bunch of molecules sure to make your engine knock and then some chemist
catalytically converted them into other molecules that make your engine purr. But
now we are looking ahead to new energy feedstocks with more sulfur and metallic
contaminants that will require much better catalysts so that we can keep your
engine purring and the air clean at the same time. We'll do it by learning how those
catalytic gold bricks work so we can tailor them to our needs. This is a case where
skin-deep beauty really pays off.
20
Representative terms from entire chapter:
chemical change
