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OCR for page 15
2.
Antarctica Prior to the Antarctic Treaty
A Historical Perspective
Trevor Hatherfon
EARLY NOTIONS
The earliest recorded concept of a southern polar region
derived from Aristotle's demonstration of the spherical
shape of the Earth, about the middle of the fourth century
B.C. Three pieces of evidence were adduced to substan-
tiate that discovery: (1) all matter tends to fall
toward a common center, and (2) the more direct observa-
tional evidence that the Earth throws a circular shadow
on the moon during an eclipse, and (3) as one travels
from north to south, familiar stars disappear and new
ones come above the horizon. The name of the region
reflects its position, i.e., "Antarktos"--opposite the
Bear, the northern constellation that contains the pole
star, Polaris.
A century later, Eratosthenes was able to make a ~
reasonably accurate estimate of the size of the spherical
Earth. The knowledge of the shape and size of the Earth
completely changed the problems of geography; not only
was the existence of an antarctic region confirmed but
the possibility of reaching it could be speculated on.
Considerations of symmetry suggested that the Earth could
be divided into five zones--the southern temperate and
polar regions mirroring the similar known regions to the
north, and the equatorial torrid zone as in the map of
Macrobius (ca A.D. 410). The Stoic philosophers imposed
another symmetry based on continents (Figure 2-1).
Although Eudoxus of Cyzicus is alleged by Poiseidonius
to have set out from Cadiz to attempt the circumnaviga-
tion of Africa about 100 B.C. (and was never heard of
again), the later preoccupation of the Christianized
world with spiritual concerns and the uncomfortable
implications for theology of other Habitable worlds" on
15
OCR for page 16
16
(a)
:'
. · · ---... .~ ,- i ~5
~~ I.n 7 .~;N —~ ~
a; l,~
omit
~~l T E P E RAiA eA NTI P o ~~,j,~
FIGURE 2-1 Grecian notions of the Earth after Aristotle's
discovery and Eratosthenes' measurements: (a) the globe
as described by Crates, a stoic Philosopher of ca 150
B.C., which satisfied symmetry by inventing, in addition
to the known inhabited world (the Oecumene), three other
populated continents: Perioeci (peoples around the globe
from the Oecumene), Antoeci (peoples below the Oecumene),
and the Antipodes (peoples on the opposite side of the
globe) (from Raisz, 1948); (b) the Earth as drawn to the
ideas of Macrobius (ca 410 A.D.) following Cicero (first
century B.C.); the known world, centered on Jerusalem, is
balanced by a large southern continent (from Mill, 1905)
(Reprinted with permission).
OCR for page 17
17
the Earth led to a neglect of physical speculation and
discovery. The antarctic problem was forgotten for almost
a millennium and a half, a period during which mankind
had neither the motivation nor the technology to advance
exploration of any southern land.
THE ROUTES OPEN
The decay of centers of learning in the eastern Mediter-
ranean; the westward transmission of Greek and Arabic
knowledge; the strengthening and centralization of power
in the states of the Iberian Peninsula; the location of
these states on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean; and
developing navigation, shipbuilding and sailing tech-
niques all led, in the early part of the fifteenth
century, to the first long voyages (by Europeans) out of
sight of land. An era of exploration of the west African
coast, passing through the dreaded "perusta," or torrid
zone, initiated by Prince Henry of Portugal 1600 years
after Eudoxus, culminated in 1488 with the rounding of
the southern tip of the African continent by Bar tholemeu
Diaz de Novaes. A decade later Vasco de Gama's voyage by
that route to Mombassa and India demolished Ptolemy' S
earlier notion of the Indian Ocean as an inland sea
bounded in the south by terra incognita.
Meanwhile, to the west, Columbus made his first, epic
voyage, and exploration of the east coast of South America
proceeded so rapidly that in 1520 Ferdinand Magellan was
able to round that continent by a strait between it and
Tierra del Fuego and emerge into the Pacific Ocean in
about 52°S latitude. Though he was killed in the
Philippine Islands, one of his ships completed the first
circumnavigation of the world.
Strangely, in view of the rapid growth of exploration,
it was more than 50 years before the next circumnaviga-
tion. This was led by Francis Drake, who demonstrated
that the Atlantic and Pacific oceans met south of Tier ra
del Fuego, in the vicinity of which "we found great store
of foule which could not fly with the bigness of geese,
whereof we killed in lesse than one day three thousand
and victualled ourselves thoroughly," thus exploiting
antarctic resources (penguins) for the first time.
This was still a period of firm belief in the great
southern continent (Figure 2-2), even though both Africa
and South America were now demonstrably separated from
it. Numerous voyagers set out to take possession of this
OCR for page 18
18
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_._- ~7~
~~.~'l5~
I_ N-- ~ ~~
-a- -a,\\,
~,~
~ ~ -2~
~~— -- ~ A _— _ ~ - I\ V~ ~
9~ - '-''''2~
~ I/~._ -/1 ;\xi ~ \~ t~ 1 ~ NN~ ;_
4.~,~r~3'~
:- -x .~-~? .~;.~
FIGURE 2-2 The Orontius Finaeus Map (Southern
Hemisphere) of 1531, which because of the remarkable
detail that it shows compared with contemporaneous, or
even later, charts has raised speculation (Weihaupt,
1984) that the region was mapped before the Age of
Discovery. However, portions of this map stretch north
of 30°S latitude and it would be curious if navigators
capable of surveying the boundaries of the continent
could not make more accurate measurements of latitude,
that most easily determined parameter of position (from
Hatherton, 1965) (Reprinted with permission).
OCR for page 19
19
hypothetical land, most notably Quiros (1605), but after
passing through the Strait of Magellan all were beguiled
by the trade winds into too low latitudes. The most
important voyage in the seventeenth century was that of
Abel Tasman, who swept south of Australia, thus separating
that continent from the antarctic landmass.
Major trading interests now began to display an inter-
est in the hypothetical riches of the great south land,
for the Dutch East India Company (Jacob Roggeveen, 1721)
and the French East India Company (Bouvet de Lazier,
1739) sent out expeditions to discover and annex the
southern lands, and the latter took an ice-clad island in
the South Atlantic, later named Bouvet Island after him,
to be part of it.
REDUCTION TO SIZE
By the middle of the eighteenth century, navigation
methods had greatly improved, and the introduction of the
quadrant gave new precision to determinations of
latitude. This period saw great rivalry between French
and British in the exploration of the Pacific, and the
second expedition of James Cook not only used a reliable
chronometer for the first time but also crossed the
Antarctic Circle (Figure 2-3). This voyage proved beyond
doubt that "habitable" lands did not exist south of the
known continents. It also demonstrated that scurvy could
be prevented by proper diet. Cook's voyage around the
antarctic continent was supplemented during 1819-1821 by
a great Russian encirclement in the ships MirnYY and
Vostok under Thaddeus van Bellingshausen. This
expedition was superbly planned and executed, and
comparison of tracks (Figure 2-3) shows that
Bellingshausen's vessels sailed over 242° of longitude
south of 60°S latitude, of which 41° were within the
Antarctic Circle, while Cook's vessels made only 125 °
south of 60°S latitude and 24° south of the circle.
Bellingshausen's care in crossing all the great gaps left
by his predecessor demonstrated beyond any doubt the
existence of a continuous open sea south of the 60°
parallel.
EXPLOITATION--THE SEALS
Although Dampier had noted the existence of a very large
colony of fur seals at the Juan Fernandez Islands
OCR for page 20
20
I=RA/LIA/~) / EAT
>~
L~/~ \
° ~ ° ° ° ° ° ° t o ° ° 0 ° I! 0 °~;° 0
AoOo
D O O
wO o7O~
~V SOUTH
O~_OOO! AMERICA
\
i<
/
FIGURE 2-3 The voyages of James Cook (1772-1775), solid
lines, and Thaddeus von Bellingshausen (1819-1821),
dashed lines. The shaded background indicates the
unknown area at the time Cook commenced his antarctic
voyages.
OCR for page 21
21
as early as 1683 while on one of his buccaneering
expeditions, the seals remained undisturbed for over a
century. However, in seven years in the last decade of
the eighteenth century more than 3 million skins were
carried from Juan Fernandez to Canton in China, where a
good market had been established. This slaughter, which
led not surprisingly to the islands being "almost
entirely abandoned by the animals," was typical of what
was to come. Contemporaneously and farther south, at
South Georgia, sealing peaked in 1800-1801 and by 1822
Weddell calculated that at least 1.2 million fur seals
(Figure 2-4) had been taken from that island and that the
species was virtually extinct there.
The last great refuge of Arctocephalus fur seals was
found when the brig Williams was blown off course in 1819
and discovered the South Shetland Islands. Exploitation
followed immediately on discovery, and at least 47
vessels worked the islands during the following season.
James Weddell complained:
The quantity of seals taken off these islands, by
vessels from different parts, during the years
1821 and 1822, may be computed at 320,000, and the
quantity of sea-elephant oil at 940 tons. This
valuable animal, the fur seal, might, by a law
similar to that which restrains fishermen in the
size of the mesh of their nets, have been spared
to render annually 100,000 furs for many years to
come. This would have followed from not killing
the mothers till the young were able to take the
water; and even then, only those which appear to
be old, together with a proportion of the males,
thereby diminishing their numbers, but in slow
progression.
Unfortunately, no authority existed that was competent
to impose and enforce controlled sealing on a sustainable
basis, and Weddell, realizing this, played his own part
in hastening the destruction of the seals. On the other
side of the Southern Ocean, the sub-Antarctic and other
islands in the New Zealand region were divested of their
seal population by about 1813.
A brief recrudescence of fur sealing took place between
the 1870s and the early twentieth century, though with
much smaller catches than in the earlier period. U.S.
sealers were active during the same period in the Indian
Ocean sector islands of Kerguelen, Crozet, and Heard.
OCR for page 22
22
PACIFIC OCEAN ~ ~
A. aver ~
ISLA S'
FELI
A. phi ~
i
ISLAS
JUAI\' FERN'
....
a."
\ ROSS ~
tANTARCTICA 5
, ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
, 41 ~)~RKI\~IF)\ r ~ ~ ~ ~ I~
WEDDED SEA
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TASMAN SEA
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SOUTH
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ATLANTIC OCEAN
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INDIAN OCEAN
FIGURE 2-4 Distribution of ArctocePhalus fur seals in
the Southern Hemisphere. These seals are found in their
greatest abundance in regions where cool, nutrient-rich
waters promote high primary productivity and hence large
stocks of the fish and invertebrates on which the seals
feed. That these seals thrive in moderate latitudes off
South America is due to cool northward-trending currents,
such as the Humboldt Current off the coast of Chile (from
Bonner, 1982) (Reprinted with permission].
OCR for page 23
23
Sealing and discovery were so interrelated in the
region now known as the Antarctic Peninsula, and docu-
mentation so sparse, that geographical priorities have
been difficult to establish, with the names of Bransfield,
Smith, Palmer, and Davis being preeminent. But the first
reported sighting of the land inside the Antarctic Circle
(Peter I. Oy) was that of Bellingshausen.
With the depletion almost to extinction of fur seals
in the sub-Antarctic islands of the Southern Ocean, the
small ships ranged more widely. With a brig of 160 tons
and a cutter of 65 tons, James Weddell made a truly
remarkable soothing into the sea that now bears his
name. James Biscoe, during 1830-1832, while in command
of another brig from the same firm of Enderby Brothers,
circumnavigated the continent and sighted Enderby Land,
named after his ship's owners. He crossed the whole of
the southern Pacific in high latitudes, discovering the
Biscoe Islands and Graham Land. In 1833 another Enderby
captain, Peter Kemp, discovered Heard Island, and in 1839
Enderby Brothers made their last contribution when John
Balleny discovered the islands named after him.
Throughout all this period and almost to the present
day, the pack ice served to protect the four true
antarctic seals--the Weddell, crabeater, leopard, and
Ross seals--from exploitation. History suggests that
there is no reason to suppose, but for the Convention for
the Conservation of Antarctic Seals of 1972, that these
genera also would not have suffered similar depredation
in more recent times.
SCIENCE AND NATIONAL INTERESTS
Commercial interests declined with the proof that land
found in high latitudes did not enrich the fur seal
industry. The role of antarctic exploration was then
taken up by states, with major French, British, and
American expeditions around the continent during the
years 1838 to 1843 (Figure 2-5). There are about the
Earth two great natural phenomena--a gravitational field
and a magnetic field--both of which have preoccupied the
greatest scientists. The voyage of Halley to the south-
east Pacific in 1699 derived from the belief that a
knowledge of variation in magnetic declination and
inclination would enable geographic position to be derived
(this was before the invention of chronometers). However,
by the early nineteenth century it was becoming obvious
OCR for page 24
24
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25
that the geomagnetic field changed in intensity and
direction with time, and its study became one of the
focal points of contemporary research preoccupying the
attention of van Humboldt and Gauss among others. Gauss'
Allgemeine Theorie des Erdmagnetismus" (1839) was one of
the great seminal papers of geophysics and predicted the
position of the magnetic poles.
All three national expeditions had attaining the south
magnetic pole, which Gauss computed to be about 25° south
of Tasmania, as one of their objectives, though perhaps
in the case of the U.S. and French expeditions it was a
subsidiary one. Dispatched by the French Ministry of
Marine in the southern summer of 1837-1838, Dumont
d'Urville, while trying unsuccessfully to penetrate the
Weddell Sea, carried out a season's work near Graham Land
before returning to the Antarctic south of Australia in
the 1839-1840 season to find his way blocked by ice and
land, which he named Terre Adelie.
Charles Wilkes commanded the U.S. Exploring Expedition,
the orders of which began, The Congress of the U.S.
having in view the importance of our commerce embarked in
the whale-fisheries and other adventures in the great
Southern Ocean ...." Though marred from well before its
outset by strife and disagreement, this expedition was
nevertheless the first to see a major segment of
Antarctica. The British expedition, commanded by James
Clark Ross, who had considerable Arctic and magnetic
survey experience, having learned of the prior journeys
of d'Urville and Wilkes, determined to make its high
latitudes farther east. On January 10, 1841, Ross' ships
Erebus and Terror reached the open waters of a sea that
allowed free penetration to a latitude of about 78°S. In
November of the same year, Ross returned to that area,
and though he did not greatly extend his discoveries, his
farthest (south of 78.10°S latitude) was to stand for
another 58 years until men grew bold enough to tramp
inland across the surface of Antarctica.
The long hiatus can be attributed to a number of
factors. British attention was directed to the Arctic in
numerous searches for the lost Franklin expedition and,
following this, to exploration of Africa. Colonialism
was endemic among European powers, and the United States
suffered the trauma of its civil war, subsequently
concentrating on its internal economic development.
OCR for page 26
26
BECAUSE IT IS THERE
The end of the nineteenth century saw the beginning of
the first serious exploration of the antarctic continent,
conducted largely by the various European powers. Several
almost contemporaneous expeditions (Figure 2-6) did start-
ling exploration and scientific work around the offshore
islands and coastal regions. The Belgian Antarctic Expe-
dition (1897-1899), led by Adrian de Gerlache, inadver-
tently became the first party to winter in Antarctica
when its ship Belgica was beset by pack ice. The over-
lapping British Southern Cross Expedition (1898-1900)
under Borchgrevink was the first party to winter inten-
tionally on the continent, at Cape Adare. Two other
expeditions discovered the dangers of antarctic pack
ice--the German Antarctic Expedition under Drygalski,
whose ship the Gauss was beset, and the even less
fortunate Swedish South Polar Expedition led by
Nordenskjold, whose ship the Antarctic was crushed and
lost.
But in the first decade of the twentieth century,
public attention focused principally on the quest for the
South Pole and on four expeditions, all of exceptional
interest. Scott's first expedition produced the earliest
extensive sledging on the continent and set a pattern for
scientif ic studies, while his second reached the pole only
for the party to perish on the return journey, leaving a
literary legacy of polar endurance and fortitude. The
astonishing ease with which Amundsen reached the pole
only 12 years after Borchgrevink's men first set foot on
the continent reflects, in Paul Siple's words, "a model
of technical performance. n But there are reasons for
giving pride of place to the exploits of Ernest
Shackleton, who among other things pioneered the route up
the glacier near the head of which we now meet and which
is named after one of his sponsors, William Beardmoree
One of Shackleton's geologists, Douglas Mawson, shortly
afterward established Australia as an antarctic nation,
exhibiting incredible power of individual endurance
during one of his journeys from Cape Denison.
From the beginning of the great Age of Discovery in
the late 1400s it had taken a century to put Europeans as
far as 60°S latitude. It took a further 300 years to
breach the pack ice to the continent proper but only a
decade to cross the last 12° when the first parties
traveled by land. It is a matter of reflection that, in
spite of eccentricities of civilizations and demography,
OCR for page 27
27
1897
_ _ _ __ _
1
Gerlache
1111111
Borchgrevink
.11111111111 .
1898
t899
1900
~ L
1901
Scott C
1 111 i
Bruce
· 904
T
Dryna~ki
11111111
Nordensk told
C
Am.
_
FIGURE 2-6 Synoptic diagram of the earliest wintering
parties in Antarctica. The time spent south of 60°S
latitude is indicated in solid black (from Mill, 1905)
(Reprinted with permission).
OCR for page 28
28
the two poles, having otherwise geographically opposed
characteristics' were reached for the first time by
humans almost simultaneously. The Romantic Age of mid-
nineteenth-century Europe motivated citizens to journeys
with no material objectives, such as war, trade, acquisi-
tion of wealth, and religious conversion. The final
technology that enabled the two poles to be reached may
well have been liquid fuels and stoves portable and
efficient enough to sustain life for several months.
EXPLOITATION--THE WHALES
Whaling has been the major industry by which man has
drawn from the great productivity of the cold waters of
the arctic and antarctic seas. The oil that is the
principal product of the industry is derived from the
thick coating of fat or blubber necessary, since whales
are warm-blooded mammals, both for insulation and as a
reserve store of food and energy during the intervals
when whales have to leave for warmer, but less pro-
ductive, waters to deliver their young.
Modern-style whaling dates from technological
developments in the 1860s, when the Norwegian Sven Foyn
introduced the harpoon gun with a grenade head and
steam-driven catchers became available. Even then,
antarctic whale stocks did not become important until the
discovery of big packs of the giant Blue Whales by the
expeditions at the end of the nineteenth century. In
1904 the first antarctic land station was opened in South
Georgia, and whaling rapidly spread to other shore
stations and factory ships moored in suitable harbors
throughout the Falkland Islands Dependencies. Within
three years, antarctic whaling produced more oil than the
rest of the world's whaling areas together, and the
exploitation of the antarctic regions had moved one step
farther south, for with the exception of the South
Georgia and South Sandwich Islands region, whales are
caught in higher latitudes than those occupied by fur
seals.
The British government attempted to control over-
fishing by issuing licenses for the factories, which were
all within its territorial waters. Attempts to avoid
such restrictions on catches led eventually (1925) to
pelagic whaling using a mobile factory ship with a
slipway up which the whales could be hauled for dismem-
berment and processing. The successive degradation of
Blue, Fin, and Sei whale catches (and presumably stocks)
OCR for page 29
29
since that time can be seen in Figure 2-7. Between 1925
and 1963 a total of 282,903 Blue Whales, the largest of
all known animals, living or extinct, was caught. Thus
the history of antarctic whaling, like sealing, seems to
have been a repeated story of discovery, overexploita-
tion, and collapse.
THE MODERN ERA
Very little exploration was done during the first decade
after World War I, but when it resumed it enjoyed the
advantage of many developments--including radio, aerial
surveys and support, and superior diet, though land
travel still depended almost exclusively on dogs until
after World War II. The United States was dominant
during this period, with both Richard E. Byrd and Lincoln
Ellsworth making remarkable contributions. Their
achievements and influence encouraged the U.S. government
to inaugurate the U.S. Antarctic Service to commence
permanent occupation and scientific exploration of parts
of Antarctica, but World War II brought this to an
untimely end. Nevertheless, the lull was brief, and the
winter of 1943 was the last time Antarctica was without
at least a transient population. Revenues from whaling
licenses assisted the initiation in 1925 of a new era of
Southern Ocean studies when the United Kingdom launched
the Discovery Investigations to carry out research in the
Southern Ocean in support of the whaling industry. At
first confined to whales and whaling in the Falkland
Islands quadrangle, the program was later expanded to
include much broader studies of the Southern Ocean.
A traditional by-product of discovery has been the
raising of a national flag by the expedition leader and a
proclamation that vaguely describes and delineates the
territories that are now the possession of that nation.
Such actions can be filed away in a nation's archives and
brought out, dusted, and used if an anuroor in moment or
need arises.
T _ ~ _ _ :! ~
~ ~ ~~~~ ~~~~ ~~ an- ~rr-~r~ I_ l__ __
Thus, from 1893 when France annexed the
isles ae Kerguelen, a steady series of territorial claims
has been made by nations based on previous discovery.
Ironically, the majority of these claims were made during
the period between the two world wars, when antarctic
exploration was at a low ebb except for that of the
United States, a nonclaimant nation. The analysis of
these official actions to establish sovereignty is more
properly the sphere of succeeding chapters of this
publication.
OCR for page 30
30
5
25
20
t0
5
o
o 25
o
-
x
-
20 _
<, 10
Ul
J
15
20
15
10
15
10
_ ~
HUMPBACK
_~
catching
banned
_ _/ ~
-
catching
banned
FIN
: _
SKI
QUOTA
ale units
I I I I I I t I
GLOBA
in blue w
I I I 1 111 1
use of
ended
,,,,, II t, ,ll , ,l , , , 11 , , ,l , , , B! ll I'~ ~ I ,lll ,l ,l I _
1910/11 1920/21 1930/31 1940/41 1950/51 11130/61 1970/71
~ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l l l l l l
l ll ll
WHALING SEASON
FIGURE 2-7 Baleen whale catches in the Southern Ocean,
1904-1971.
OCR for page 31
31
In some cases proclamation was followed by occupation.
Although it is outside the Antarctic Circle, Laurie Island
in the South Orkneys had been occupied on a permanent
basis by Argentina since the base had been handed over to
them by the withdrawing Bruce (Scottish) Expedition in
1904. Forty years later, Argentina, Great Britain, and
then Chile established a series of bases on the Antarctic
Peninsula in support of their national interests. After
World War II, France and Australia also moved toward con-
tinuous occupation to advance their territorial claims.
But scientifically, the most important expedition in the
immediate postwar period was the Norwegian-British-
Swedish Expedition, which demonstrated for the first time
the enormous thickness of the ice cap.
THE INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR, 1957-1958
The first two Polar Years of 1882-1883 and 1932-1933 had
seen virtually no activity on the southern continent.
The burgeoning prosperity of the developing countries and
the enhanced prestige of science resulting from World War
II ensured that adequate funding would be available for
the global synoptic exercise of the International Geo-
physical Year (IGY), including what was to be its prin-
cipal showpiece, Antarctica. Technology developed for
northern polar regions, including snow and ice runways,
ski equipped aircraft, and tracked vehicles, allowed
bases to be built and supplied in the interior of the
continent. More people were on the continent during that
year than had previously set foot on the place during the
whole of history; even then the total winter population
in the 40 bases (Figure 2-8) established on the continent
and its immediate offshore islands by 12 nations* would
hardly have peopled a village in many of the countries
concerned. Before the IGY was completed at the end of
1958, almost all countries elected to continue occupation
of their bases and the conduct of research programs,
partly because of the high level of investment but also
no doubt for fear that they would lose territorial,
political, or strategic advantage to other states should
*Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New
Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the USSR, the United
Kingdom, and the United States
OCR for page 32
32
900 -
700
o
. _
O 500
Q
300
100 -
~ It ~
r I , ~ , ~
1 900 19 1 0 1920 1930
whaling (Deception)
l
1940 1950 t1960 1970 1980
I.G.Y.
FIGURE 2-8 Total wintering population in the Antarctic
south of 60°S latitude from the first overwintering
expedition to 1980 (from Sugden, 1982) (Reprinted with
· ~
permlsslon .
they fail to do so. The scientists happily capitalized
on this dilemma, and the scene was set for the formation
of the Special Committee for Antarctic Research in 1958--
formalizing for the longer term the spirit of cooperation
exemplified by the scientists of all 12 nations during
the IGY--and for the signing of the Antarctic Treaty in
1959. Easement of potential "international discord" had
been quietly sought in diplomatic circles for more than a
decade before 1959. It may not be the least of the
achievements of the IGY that, by creating unprecedented
widespread activity on the continent by 12 nations, both
claimant and nonclaimant, it catalyzed that accommodation
in the form of the treaty.
REFERENCES
Bonner, W. N. 1982. Seals and Man, Washington Sea
Grant, University of Washington (Seattle), p. 170.
Mill, H. R. 1905. The Siege of the South Pole, Alston
Rivers (London), p. 455. -
Raisz, E. 1948. General cartography, 2nd ea., p. 11.
Sugden, D. 1982. Arctic and Antarctic. Basil Blackwell
(Oxford), p. 472.
Weihaupt, J. G. 1984. Eos 65(35): 493-501.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
fur seals
