. "J Human Immunodeficiency Virus Antibody Testing Among Women 15-44: Results from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth." Reducing the Odds: Preventing Perinatal Transmission of HIV in the United States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 1999.
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Appendix JHuman Immunodeficiency Virus Antibody Testing Among Women 15–44: Results from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth
Maria Hewitt
National estimates of the use of HIV tests among women of reproductive-age are available from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG) conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS, 1997). As part of this survey, 10,847 women were interviewed in their homes from January to October 1995. The survey response rate was 79%. Interviews lasted an average of 103 minutes and covered the following topics: pregnancy and birth history, marriage and cohabitation history, sexual partner history, contraceptive use, diseases related to fertility (e.g., pelvic inflammatory disease, sexually transmitted diseases [STDs]), HIV-related behaviors, and use of HIV tests. To ensure the confidentiality of responses to potentially sensitive questions, a small part of the interview was self-administered. Women listened over headphones to questions on topics such as abortion, sex partner history, and HIV-related behaviors and entered answers directly into laptop computers. This technique, called audio-CASI (computer-assisted self-interviewing), improves reporting of sensitive behaviors (NCHS, 1997).
The tables that follow show HIV test use among women of childbearing age by selected sociodemographic characteristics, pregnancy status, and HIV risk status. HIV test use is shown for women who were pregnant at the time of the interview, had completed a pregnancy in the last year, or had received pre- or postnatal care within the last year (1,472 women representing 13% of the population were pregnant, or recently pregnant using these criteria; these women are referred to as "pregnant" in the tables).
HIV test use is also shown by HIV risk status. A total of 691 women representing an estimated 6% of the population report specific risk behaviors (e.g., injection drug use or sex with an injection drug user), or a moderate to high self-perceived
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Appendix J Human Immunodeficiency Virus Antibody Testing Among Women 15–44: Results from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth
Maria Hewitt
National estimates of the use of HIV tests among women of reproductive-age are available from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG) conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS, 1997). As part of this survey, 10,847 women were interviewed in their homes from January to October 1995. The survey response rate was 79%. Interviews lasted an average of 103 minutes and covered the following topics: pregnancy and birth history, marriage and cohabitation history, sexual partner history, contraceptive use, diseases related to fertility (e.g., pelvic inflammatory disease, sexually transmitted diseases [STDs]), HIV-related behaviors, and use of HIV tests. To ensure the confidentiality of responses to potentially sensitive questions, a small part of the interview was self-administered. Women listened over headphones to questions on topics such as abortion, sex partner history, and HIV-related behaviors and entered answers directly into laptop computers. This technique, called audio-CASI (computer-assisted self-interviewing), improves reporting of sensitive behaviors (NCHS, 1997).
The tables that follow show HIV test use among women of childbearing age by selected sociodemographic characteristics, pregnancy status, and HIV risk status. HIV test use is shown for women who were pregnant at the time of the interview, had completed a pregnancy in the last year, or had received pre- or postnatal care within the last year (1,472 women representing 13% of the population were pregnant, or recently pregnant using these criteria; these women are referred to as "pregnant" in the tables).
HIV test use is also shown by HIV risk status. A total of 691 women representing an estimated 6% of the population report specific risk behaviors (e.g., injection drug use or sex with an injection drug user), or a moderate to high self-perceived
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risk of being HIV-infected themselves or of having had sex with someone infected with HIV.
HIV test use is shown in three ways: (1) "all HIV tests" includes self-reported HIV tests and any mentions of blood donation since 1985; (2) "any self-reported HIV test" excludes mentions of blood donation when the respondent does not specifically report having had an HIV test; and (3) "HIV test in last 12 months" is limited to self-reported HIV testing.
All rates and population counts are weighted to provide national estimates. Variance estimates for these HIV test use rates and logistic regression model parameters were calculated using the Taylor series method taking into account the complex design of the survey (STATA statistical software).
Preliminary Findings
Self-Reported HIV Test Use Among Reproductive-Age Women
From 1990 to 1995, self-reported HIV test use increased from 26% to 35% among reproductive-age women (Table J.1).
In 1995, pregnant women were almost twice as likely as non-pregnant women to have been tested for HIV (60% versus 31%) (Table J.2).
Women at high-risk for HIV are almost twice as likely as those at low risk to have been tested for HIV (64% versus 33%). Similarly, there are high rates of HIV testing among women reporting at least one STD in their lifetime (53%) and women reporting six or more lifetime sex partners (49%) (Table J.3).
Nearly nine of ten pregnant women (87%) at high risk for HIV report having been tested for HIV. HIV testing occurred within the year for two-thirds of high-risk pregnant women (67%) (Table J.4).
Location of Self-Reported HIV Tests
The most common sites of HIV testing among reproductive-age women are private doctor's offices or heath maintenance organizations (HMOs) (46%), public health department or other clinics (27%), and hospitals (16%). Teenagers, those with lower educational attainment, and the poor are more likely to use public health department and other clinics than private doctor's offices or HMOs (Table J.5).
Pregnant women are more likely than non-pregnant women to have been tested in the last 12 months at a doctor's office or HMO (62% versus 48%) (Table J.8).
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TABLE J.1 Number of Women 15–44 Years of Age and Percent Ever Tested for HIV, by Source of Test Information and Selected Demographic Characteristics: United States, 1990 and 1995a
Percent Ever Tested
Number of Women (thousands)
Self-Reported Testsb (standard error)
All Testsc (standard error)
Characteristic
1990
1995
1990
1995
1990
1995
All womend
58,381
60,201
25.6
34.7 (0.6)
34.9
47.9 (0.6)
Race and ethnicity
Hispanic
5,547
6,703
23.8
38.9 (1.8)
29.8
46.6 (1.5)
Black, not Hispanic
7,526
8,210
28.5
45.5 (1.3)
34.8
50.8 (1.4)
White, not Hispanic
42,836
42,521
25.4
32.2 (0.7)
35.8
48.1 (0.7)
Education
Less than 12 years
5,618
15,151
24.6
29.9 (1.2)
31.0
36.1 (1.2)
12 years
17,247
19,987
23.1
35.1 (0.9)
31.3
47.5 (1.0)
13 years or more
27,033
24,763
28.6
37.3 (0.9)
39.9
55.6 (0.86)
Marital status
Never married
20,123
22,679
26.0
31.1 (0.9)
35.7
44.2 (0.9)
Married
31,417
29,673
23.6
34.2 (0.8)
32.5
48.4 (0.8)
Formerly married
6,841
7,849
33.5
46.9 (1.3)
43.4
56.8 (1.3)
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Age
15–19
8,483
8,924
21.5
20.9 (1.3)
28.7
29.0 (1.4)
20–24
9,154
8,946
27.0
40.3 (1.4)
40.8
55.5 (1.5)
25–29
10,637
9,795
33.4
44.6 (1.4)
40.9
60.1 (1.4)
30–34
11,091
10,982
27.5
42.0 (1.5)
37.1
54.6 (1.4)
35–39
10,111
11,297
22.0
33.3 (1.3)
31.5
46.0 (1.3)
40–44
8,905
10,014
20.3
26.4 (1.0)
28.5
41.3 (1.2)
Residence in metropolitan area
MSA, central city
12,727
18,551
31.9
39.8 (0.9)
39.9
51.3 (0.9)
MSA, other
29,981
29,303
26.1
33.5 (0.8)
36.4
47.7 (0.8)
Non-MSA
11,979
12,348
21.4
30.0 (1.5)
32.4
43.2 (1.5)
Region
Northeast
11,226
11,496
28.2
32.1 (1.2)
36.9
45.2 (1.5)
South
18,603
20,241
28.0
38.9 (1.1)
39.5
51.6 (1.0)
Midwest
14,453
14,525
23.8
29.4 (1.1)
34.0
44.3 (1.2)
West
10,405
13,938
25.4
36.3 (1.5)
33.5
48.5 (1.3)
Poverty-level income
0–149%
7,918
13,588
28.1
41.8 (1.2)
35.5
49.6 (1.2)
150% or more
41,980
46,613
25.9
32.6 (0.7)
36.0
47.4 (0.7)
NOTE: MSA = metropolitan statistical area.
a Data from 1990 from Wilson, 1993.
b Includes only test reported in response to the question: "Have you ever had your blood tested for infection with the AIDS virus?"
c Category includes all tests for HIV infection, including those done in connection with blood donation (i.e., all reporting a blood donation since March 1985).
d Includes women classified as "other" races, not shown separately because of small sample size.
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TABLE J.2 Number of Women 15–44 Years of Age by Pregnancy Status, and Percent Tested for HIV, by Selected Demographic Characteristics: United States, 1995a
Number of Women (thousands)
HIV Test Last 12 Months (percent/standard error)
Any Self-Reported Testsb (percent/standard error)
Characteristic
Pregnant
Not Pregnant
Pregnant
Not Pregnant
Pregnant
Not Pregnant
All womenc
7,789
52,141
41.9 (1.4)
13.7 (0.4)
59.9 (1.5)
30.9 (0.6)
Race and ethnicity
Hispanic
1,245
5,448
47.4 (4.2)
16.1 (1.2)
60.3 (4.1)
33.9 (1.8)
Black, not Hispanic
1,166
7,032
55.5 (3.1)
24.3 (1.2)
71.4 (2.7)
41.2 (1.4)
White, not Hispanic
5,020
37,268
37.8 (1.8)
11.5 (0.5)
57.5 (2.1)
28.7 (0.7)
Education
Less than 12 years
2,025
13,081
54.5 (3.0)
13.0 (0.7)
69.2 (2.8)
23.8 (1.0)
12 years
2,655
17,250
42.1 (2.3)
14.0 (0.7)
59.4 (2.8)
31.3 (0.9)
13 years or more
3,075
21,545
33.6 (2.0)
13.8 (0.6)
54.2 (2.2)
34.9 (0.9)
Marital status
Never married
2,039
20,593
51.3 (2.8)
15.7 (0.7)
65.4 (2.8)
27.7 (0.9)
Married
5,024
24,457
36.1 (1.8)
10.2 (0.6)
55.2 (1.8)
29.8 (0.8)
Formerly married
726
7,092
55.8 (4.9)
19.8 (1.1)
77.1 (3.9)
43.8 (1.3)
Age
15–19
957
7,953
55.3 (4.0)
9.9 (0.9)
68.7 (4.2)
15.2 (1.1)
20–24
1,813
7,086
45.3 (3.1)
18.6 (1.2)
61.2 (3.2)
34.9 (1.5)
25–29
2,293
7,443
39.8 (2.9)
18.7 (1.2)
58.1 (2.8)
40.4 (1.6)
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30–34
1,802
9,126
40.1 (2.9)
14.5 (0.9)
61.5 (3.1)
38.1 (1.5)
35–39
710
10,544
28.9 (4.2)
13.0 (0.8)
47.5 (5.0)
32.4 (1.3)
40–44
213
9,748
33.8 (8.2)
9.6 (0.8)
55.5 (8.2)
25.8 (1.0)
Residence in metropolitan area
MSA, central city
2,617
15,891
48.1 (2.6)
16.8 (0.8)
66.7 (2.4)
35.3 (0.9)
MSA, other
3,631
25,499
38.5 (2.0)
12.9 (0.6)
55.9 (2.3)
30.2 (0.8)
Non-MSA
1,542
10,750
39.4 (3.5)
11.0 (0.8)
57.8 (4.1)
26.0 (1.4)
Region
Northeast
1,431
10,009
40.2 (3.2)
12.9 (0.9)
58.6 (2.7)
28.3 (1.3)
South
2,587
17,569
51.6 (2.8)
16.0 (0.8)
70.3 (2.3)
34.3 (1.1)
Midwest
1,870
12,553
34.3 (2.3)
10.6 (0.8)
51.9 (3.2)
25.9 (1.1)
West
1,901
12,011
37.5 (3.2)
14.2 (0.9)
54.8 (3.7)
33.3 (1.4)
Poverty-level income
0–149%
2,306
11,250
51.1 (2.5)
17.6 (1.0)
66.5 (2.3)
36.7 (1.3)
150% or more
5,483
40,892
38.0 (1.7)
12.6 (0.5)
57.1 (1.8)
29.3 (0.7)
NOTE: MSA = metropolitan statistical area.
a A total of 1,472 survey respondents reported that they either were pregnant at the time of the interview (430), had completed a pregnancy within 12 months of the interview (1,039), or had received pre- or postnatal care in the last 12 months (1,140). Women referred to as ''pregnant" in this table are women who were pregnant, or recently pregnant, at the time of the interview.
b Includes only tests reported in response to the question: "Have you ever had your blood tested for infection with the AIDS virus?" Mentions of blood donation since 1985 are not included.
c Includes women classified as "other" races, not shown separately because of small sample size.
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TABLE J.3 Number of Women 15–44 Years of Age Reporting AIDS Risk Behaviors, and Percent Ever Tested for HIV: United States, 1995
Percent Ever Tested
Characteristic
Number of Women (thousands)
Any Self-Reported Testa (standard error)
All Testsb (standard error)
All women
60,201
34.7 (0.6)
47.9 (0.6)
HIV risk
Moderate/high HIV riskc
3,672
63.9 (2.0)
68.5 (1.8)
Low HIV risk
56,528
32.8 (0.6)
46.6 (0.6)
STD history
At least one STD reported in lifetimed
6,218
53.2 (1.8)
66.2 (1.7)
No STD in lifetime
53,983
32.6 (0.7)
45.8 (0.6)
Number of sexual partners in lifetime
None
6,196
6.8 (0.8)
20.0 (1.6)
One
13,838
25.3 (1.0)
39.1 (1.1)
Two–five
22,655
37.5 (0.9)
50.6 (1.0)
Six–more
16,209
48.9 (1.0)
62.2 (1.0)
a Includes only tests reported in response to the question: "Have you ever had your blood tested for infection with the AIDS virus?"
b Category includes all tests for HIV infection, including those done in connection with blood donation (i.e., all reporting a blood donation since March 1985).
c Women reported whether they had a high, moderate, low, or no chance of being currently HIV-infected and whether they had a high, moderate, low, or no chance of having had sex with someone HIV-infected. Anyone indicating "high" or "moderate" on either question was categorized as at HIV-risk. In addition, during the audio-CASI portion of the interview, women reported whether they injected drugs in the last year, shared needles in the last year, or had a sex partner in the last year who had male partners, injected drugs, or shared needles. Any respondents answering yes to these questions were also categorized as at-risk. Using these criteria, 6% of women were categorized as at-risk (i.e., either self-identified as at-risk or reporting risk behaviors).
d Includes mention of gonorrhea, chlamydia, syphilis, genital warts, and genital herpes.
Reason for Self-Reported HIV Tests
The most common reason for HIV testing among reproductive-age women is "just to find out" (36%), as part of prenatal or pregnancy care (25%), and for a hospital procedure, referral by a doctor or other health provider contact (16%) (Table J.6).
Two-thirds of pregnant women (67%) cite pregnancy as the reason for HIV tests performed within the last 12 months (Table J.8).
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Source of Referral for Self-Reported HIV Tests
When asked whose idea it was to get tested, 42% of reproductive-age women report a doctor or other health care provider, 39% report self, and 7% report an insurer (Table J.7).
Pregnant women are more than twice as likely as non-pregnant women to report that they were recently tested for HIV upon the recommendation of a health care provider (70% versus 30%) (Table J.8).
Factors Contributing to Test Use among Pregnant and Non-Pregnant Women
According to multivariate analyses, different factors are predictive of HIV test use for pregnant and non-pregnant women. Among women who are not pregnant, being at HIV risk, African American, poor, living in a metropolitan area, being age 20–39, highly educated, and having been formerly married increase HIV test use. Decreased HIV test use occurs among teenagers and residents of the Northeast and Midwest. Being at HIV risk triples the odds of HIV test use among non-pregnant women (Table J.9).
Among pregnant women, many of the sociodemographic predictors of HIV testing observed among non-pregnant women lose significance (i.e., age, race, poverty, and metropolitan area residence). This suggests that pregnancy is serving as a triggering event for testing, irrespective of the woman's characteristics. The role of education is reversed for pregnant women. Here, lower educational attainment is predictive of HIV testing. Different geographic patterns emerge for pregnant women, with residents of the South more likely to be tested than residents of other areas. Being at HIV risk quadruples the odds of HIV testing among pregnant women (Table J.9).
References
National Center for Health Statistics. Report of final mortality statics, 1995. Monthly Vital Statistics Report 1997; 45(11:Suppl 2).
Wilson JB. Human immunodeficiency virus antibody testing in women 15–44 years of age: United States, 1990. Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics. Number 238, Hyattsville, Md.: National Center for Health Statistics, 1993.
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TABLE J.4 Number of Women 15–44 Years of Age by Pregnancy Status and Percent Tested for HIV by Selected Measures of HIV Risk: United States, 1995a
Number of Women (thousands)
HIV Test Last 12 Months (percent/standard error)
Any Self-Reported Testb (percent/standard error)
Characteristic
Pregnant
Not Pregnant
Pregnant
Not Pregnant
Pregnant
Not Pregnant
All women
7,789
52,141
41.9 (1.4)
13.7 (0.4)
59.9 (1.5)
30.9 (0.6)
HIV risk
Report HIV-riskc
595
3,064
66.7 (4.5)
32.3 (2.4)
87.2 (3.6)
59.3 (2.3)
No report of HIV risk
7,194
49,078
39.9 (1.5)
12.5 (0.4)
57.6 (1.6)
29.1 (0.6)
STD history
At least 1 STD reported in lifetimed
1,022
5,162
44.3 (4.4)
21.1 (1.5)
69.3 (3.9)
50.0 (2.0)
No STD in lifetime
6,767
46,979
41.6 (1.5)
12.9 (0.5)
58.5 (1.5)
28.8 (0.7)
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Number of sexual partners in lifetime
One
2,063
11,672
34.4 (2.7)
8.4 (0.7)
48.6
21.1 (0.9)
Two–five
3,416
19,142
43.7 (2.6)
15.0 (0.7)
60.6
33.4 (0.9)
Six-more
2,090
14,048
45.5 (2.8)
20.9 (0.9)
68.8
45.9 (1.0)
a A total of 1,472 survey respondents reported that they either were pregnant at the time of the interview (430), had completed a pregnancy within 12 months of the interview (1,039), or had received pre- or postnatal care in the last 12 months (1,140). Women referred to as "pregnant" in this table are to women who were pregnant, or recently pregnant, at the time of the interview.
b Includes only tests reported in response to the question: "Have you ever had your blood tested for infection with the AIDS virus?"
c Women reported whether they had a high, moderate, low, or no change of being currently HIV-infected and whether they had a high, moderate, low, or no chance of having had sex with someone HIV-infected. Anyone indicating "high" or ''moderate" on either question was categorized as at HIV-risk. In addition, during the audio-CASI portion of the interview, women reported whether they injected drugs in last year, shared needles in the last year, or had a sex partner in the last year who had male partners, injected drugs, or shared needles. Any respondents answering yes to these questions were also categorized as at-risk. Using these criteria, 6% of women were categorized as at-risk (i.e., either self-identified as at-risk or reporting risk behaviors).
d Includes mention of gonorrhea, chlamydia, syphilis, genital warts, and genital herpes.
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TABLE J.5 Number of Women 15–44 Years of Age Self-Reporting Test for HIV and Percent Tested at Specific Locations for Most Recent Test, by Selected Demographic Characteristics: United States, 1995
Location of Most Recent HIV Test (percent/standard error)
Characteristic
Number of Women (thousands)
Private Doctor's Office or HMO
Public Health or Other Clinica
Hospital or Emergency Room
Other Locationb
All womenc
20,889
46.4 (0.1)
26.8 (0.9)
15.9 (0.7)
10.9 (0.6)
Race and ethnicity
Hispanic
2,606
41.8 (2.0)
36.6 (2.2)
14.1 (1.6)
7.6 (1.2)
Black, not Hispanic
3,734
40.1 (1.8)
38.6 (1.8)
15.0 (1.2)
6.3 (0.9)
White, not Hispanic
13,675
49.1 (1.3)
21.8 (1.1)
16.6 (0.9)
12.5 (0.8)
Education
Less than 12 years
4,533
36.7 (1.9)
41.3 (1.9)
16.8 (1.4)
5.2 (0.8)
12 years
7,014
48.1 (1.5)
26.0 (1.3)
15.9 (1.1)
10.0 (0.9)
13 years or more
9,244
49.8 (1.3)
20.2 (1.2)
15.6 (1.0)
14.4 (1.1)
Marital status
Never married
7,058
39.9 (1.8)
38.3 (1.7)
13.6 (1.2)
8.2 (0.9)
Married
10,149
50.9 (1.3)
18.6 (1.0)
16.6 (1.0)
13.9 (0.9)
Formerly married
3,682
46.3 (2.3)
27.7 (1.9)
18.3 (1.5)
7.7 (1.3)
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Age
15–19
1,864
39.2 (2.9)
41.0 (2.7)
14.3 (2.1)
5.5 (1.2)
20–24
3,607
41.9 (2.3)
38.3 (2.1)
13.3 (1.6)
6.5 (1.2)
25–29
4,372
51.6 (2.0)
25.7 (1.9)
13.0 (1.6)
9.7 (1.1)
30–34
4,614
51.8 (1.8)
22.6 (1.6)
14.8 (1.4)
10.9 (1.2)
35–39
3,763
44.6 (2.1)
21.5 (1.7)
20.6 (1.6)
13.2 (1.6)
40–44
2,643
41.6 (2.3)
18.2 (2.0)
20.8 (1.9)
19.4 (1.9)
Residence in metropolitan area
MSA, central city
7,378
44.1 (1.5)
31.7 (1.5)
15.6 (1.0)
8.6 (1.0)
MSA, other
9,802
48.7 (1.3)
22.6 (1.1)
15.5 (0.9)
13.2 (0.8)
Non-MSA
3,709
44.8 (2.5)
28.4 (2.2)
17.8 (1.9)
9.0 (1.5)
Region
Northeast
3,686
42.5 (2.7)
25.4 (2.7)
18.2 (1.6)
13.8 (1.7)
South
7,876
46.4 (1.5)
29.4 (1.4)
15.3 (1.0)
8.8 (0.8)
Midwest
4,269
44.6 (2.5)
24.4 (1.8)
20.2 (2.0)
10.8 (1.5)
West
5,058
50.7 (1.4)
25.8 (1.5)
11.6 (1.0)
11.9 (1.0)
Poverty-level income
0–149%
5,685
36.5 (1.5)
41.1 (1.7)
16.1 (1.2)
6.4 (1.0)
150% or more
15,204
50.1 (1.1)
21.5 (1.0)
15.9 (0.8)
12.5 (0.7)
NOTE: MSA = metropolitan statistical area.
a Includes community clinics, family planning, public health, and other clinics.
b Includes other places such as school or college, military facility, home, job site, laboratory, or donation site.
c Includes women classified as "other" races, not shown separately because of small sample size.
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TABLE J.6 Number of Women 15–44 Years of Age Self-Reporting Any Test for HIV and Percent Tested by Reason for the Last Test, by Selected Demographic Characteristics: United States, 1995
Reason for Last HIV Test (percent/standard error)
Characteristic
Number of Women (thousands)
HIV Test Only Reason for Visit
Pregnant, Prenatal Care
Hospital Procedure/ Referred by Doctora
Health/Life Insurance
Other Reasonb
All Womenc
20,889
35.8 (0.8)
25.0 (0.8)
15.5 (0.7)
8.5 (0.5)
15.2 (0.7)
Race and ethnicity
Hispanic
2,605
34.9 (2.5)
29.5 (2.5)
13.3 (1.4)
8.4 (1.3)
13.9 (1.6)
Black, not Hispanic
3,735
46.3 (1.6)
20.5 (1.4)
18.1 (1.2)
5.4 (0.8)
9.7 (1.0)
White, not Hispanic
13,674
33.6 (1.1)
25.3 (1.0)
15.3 (0.9)
9.6 (0.7)
16.2 (0.8)
Education
Less than 12 years
4,533
39.2 (1.8)
29.5 (1.6)
17.4 (1.3)
2.0 (0.5)
11.9 (1.3)
12 years
7,015
36.6 (1.5)
27.8 (1.4)
15.4 (1.1)
7.6 (0.8)
12.6 (1.0)
13 years or more
9,245
33.3 (1.4)
20.8 (1.0)
14.7 (1.0)
12.4 (0.9)
18.8 (1.1)
Marital status
Never married
7,058
50.8 (1.5)
17.7 (1.2)
15.1 (1.2)
4.0 (0.5)
12.5 (1.1)
Married
10,148
20.1 (1.1)
33.5 (1.3)
15.8 (0.9)
13.0 (0.9)
17.6 (1.0)
Formerly married
3,682
50.3 (2.3)
15.7 (1.6)
15.3 (1.4)
4.9 (1.2)
13.8 (1.4)
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Age
15–19
1,866
47.3 (3.0)
24.3 (2.4)
16.3 (1.9)
1.5 (0.8)
10.6 (1.9)
20–24
3,606
40.2 (2.4)
32.8 (2.3)
10.5 (1.3)
3.0 (0.7)
13.5 (1.7)
25–29
4,373
36.3 (1.9)
31.5 (2.0)
12.4 (1.4)
6.9 (0.9)
13.0 (1.2)
30–34
4,614
28.8 (1.6)
29.1 (1.6)
15.9 (1.4)
10.8 (1.2)
15.5 (1.4)
35–39
3,765
33.0 (2.0)
17.5 (1.5)
20.3 (1.8)
11.9 (1.3)
17.3 (1.6)
40–44
2,644
37.0 (2.4)
7.8 (1.3)
19.5 (1.7)
15.1 (1.8)
20.5 (1.7)
Residence in metropolitan area
MSA, central city
7,377
39.5 (1.4)
24.5 (1.3)
15.3 (1.2)
6.6 (0.7)
14.1 (1.1)
MSA, other
9,803
33.7 (1.2)
24.7 (1.1)
14.9 (1.0)
10.2 (0.8)
16.6 (0.9)
Non-MSA
3,708
33.8 (2.3)
26.7 (2.3)
17.7 (1.7)
8.0 (1.3)
13.9 (1.6)
Region
Northeast
3,686
38.3 (1.9)
22.1 (1.9)
11.3 (1.2)
13.3 (1.5)
15.0 (1.5)
South
7,875
35.6 (1.3)
26.0 (1.4)
18.5 (1.0)
6.5 (0.7)
13.3 (1.1)
Midwest
4,268
30.5 (2.1)
26.8 (1.7)
16.6 (1.5)
8.2 (1.0)
17.9 (1.6)
West
5,058
38.6 (1.6)
24.0 (1.4)
12.9 (1.7)
8.5 (0.9)
16.0 (1.3)
Poverty-level income
0–149%
5,686
39.0 (1.7)
30.2 (1.6)
17.5 (1.4)
1.9 (0.4)
11.4 (1.2)
150% or more
15,204
34.6 (0.9)
23.1 (0.9)
14.8 (0.8)
11.0 (0.7)
16.6 (0.8)
NOTE: MSA = metropolitan statistical area.
a Includes being part of routine or general physical exam, and to start or renew birth control.
b Includes being part of a marriage license application, for employment, because potentially exposed to HIV, for immigration or visa application, and for school or college.
c Includes women classified as "other" races, not shown separately because of small sample size.
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TABLE J.7 Number of Women 15–44 Years of Age Self-Reporting Any Test for HIV and Percent Tested by Referral Source for the Last Test, by Selected Demographic Characteristics: United States, 1995
Referral source (percent/standard error)
Characteristic
Number of Women (thousands)
Self
Health Care Providera
Insurer
Otherb
All womenc
20,889
39.3 (0.9)
42.4 (0.9)
7.3 (0.5)
10.9 (0.6)
Race and ethnicity
Hispanic
2,606
40.5 (2.5)
42.7 (2.2)
6.7 (1.0)
10.1 (1.1)
Black, not Hispanic
3,734
44.0 (1.8)
44.2 (1.9)
4.0 (0.7)
7.7 (0.9)
White, not Hispanic
13,675
38.2 (1.1)
41.9 (1.1)
8.5 (0.7)
11.4 (0.8)
Education
Less than 12 years
4,533
38.5 (1.8)
49.2 (1.7)
1.8 (0.5)
10.5 (1.2)
12 years
7,015
40.0 (1.6)
44.4 (1.5)
6.5 (0.7)
9.1 (0.9)
13 years or more
9,244
38.9 (1.2)
37.8 (1.2)
10.7 (0.9)
12.5 (0.9)
Marital status
Never married
7,057
49.7 (1.5)
36.3 (1.6)
3.2 (0.5)
10.7 (1.0)
Married
10,148
26.8 (1.2)
49.9 (1.4)
11.5 (0.8)
11.8 (0.8)
Formerly married
3,683
54.0 (2.2)
33.2 (2.0)
3.8 (1.0)
9.0 (1.3)
Age
15–19
1,865
42.8 (3.0)
41.9 (3.0)
1.5 (0.8)
13.9 (2.3)
20–24
3,606
41.9 (2.2)
44.8 (2.3)
2.9 (0.7)
10.5 (1.6)
25–29
4,372
39.2 (2.1)
46.9 (2.3)
5.9 (0.9)
8.0 (1.0)
30–34
4,615
35.7 (1.7)
45.3 (1.8)
9.0 (1.0)
10.0 (1.0)
35–39
3,764
37.9 (2.3)
39.5 (2.2)
9.8 (1.3)
12.8 (1.4)
40–44
2,643
41.8 (2.4)
31.5 (2.0)
13.7 (1.7)
13.0 (1.7)
Residence in metropolitan area
MSA, central city
7,378
42.4 (1.4)
41.6 (1.4)
5.9 (0.7)
10.1 (1.0)
MSA, other
9,803
38.8 (1.3)
40.9 (1.3)
8.7 (0.7)
11.5 (0.8)
Non-MSA
3,708
34.6 (2.3)
47.9 (2.1)
6.6 (1.2)
10.9 (1.4)
Region
Northeast
3,687
43.8 (2.1)
35.0 (2.0)
10.1 (1.2)
11.2 (1.3)
South
7,875
37.4 (1.3)
47.1 (1.4)
5.5 (0.7)
9.9 (0.9)
Midwest
4,268
33.2 (1.9)
45.3 (1.9)
7.4 (1.0)
14.0 (1.4)
West
5,057
44.2 (2.1)
38.0 (1.7)
8.1 (0.9)
9.8 (1.1)
Poverty-level income
0–149%
5,685
40.3 (1.6)
48.4 (1.6)
1.5 (0.4)
9.7 (1.1)
150% or more
15,203
39.0 (1.0)
40.1 (1.0)
9.5 (0.6)
11.4 (0.7)
NOTE: MSA = metropolitan statistical area.
a Includes women for whom the idea for testing came from a doctor, health department, and hospital or medical policy.
b Includes employer or school, government policy, sexual partner, and family or friends.
c Includes women classified as "other" races, not shown separately because of small sample size.
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TABLE J.8 Number of Women 15–44 Years of Age by Pregnancy Status and Percent Tested for HIV In Last 12 Months by Location of Testing, Reason for Test, and Source of Referral for HIV Test: United States, 1995a
HIV Test Last 12 Months (percent/standard error)
Pregnant (n = 3,266)
Not Pregnant (n = 7,139)
Location of test
Private doctor's office or HMO
62.0 (2.1)
48.4 (1.6)
Public health or other clinicb
28.8 (1.9)
30.2 (1.5)
Hospital or emergency room
7.2 (1.2)
11.1 (1.0)
Other locationsc
2.0 (0.6)
10.4 (1.0)
Total
100.0
100.0
Reason for test
(n = 3,265)
(n = 7,139)
HIV test only reason for test
19.3 (1.8)
49.5 (1.5)
Pregnant, prenatal care
66.9 (2.1)
3.4 (0.5)
Hospital procedure/doctor referrald
7.3 (1.1)
22.0 (1.4)
Health/life insurance
2.9 (0.8)
9.1 (0.8)
Other reasone
3.6 (0.8)
16.0 (1.1)
Total
100.0
100.0
Source of referral for test
(n = 3,265)
(n = 7,139)
Self
24.6 (1.8)
51.0 (1.5)
Health care providerf
70.0 (2.0)
30.1 (1.4)
Insurer
2.3 (0.7)
7.6 (0.8)
Otherg
3.1 (0.8)
11.3 (1.1)
Total
100.0
100.0
a A total of 1,472 survey respondents reported that they either were pregnant at the time of the interview (430), had completed a pregnancy within 12 months of the interview (1,039), or had received pre- or postnatal care in the last 12 months (1,140). Women referred to as "pregnant" in this table are to women who were pregnant, or recently pregnant, at the time of the interview.
b Includes community, family planning, public health, and other clinics.
c Includes other places such as school or college, military facility, home, job site, laboratory, or donation site.
d Includes being part of routine or general physical exam, and to start or renew birth control.
e Includes being part of a marriage license application, for employment, because potentially exposed to HIV, for immigration or visa application, and for school or college.
f Includes women for whom the idea for testing came from a doctor, health department, or hospital or medical policy.
g Includes employer or school, government policy, sexual partner, and family or friends.
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TABLE J.9 Logistic Regression Model, Predictors of Any Self-Reported HIV Test Among Women by Pregnancy Status, United States, 1995a,b
Odds Ratio Coefficient (95 percent confidence interval)
Model Parameter
Not Pregnant
Pregnant
Not Pregnant
Pregnant
Intercept
-1.2975
-0.4283
Race/ethnicity
Black
0.4234*
0.2025
1.53 (1.33–1.76)
1.22 (0.86–1.74)
Hispanic
0.0777
-0.1010
1.08 (0.89–1.31)
0.90 (0.61–1.35)
Other race
-0.1686
-0.0903
0.84 (0.59–1.21)
0.91 (0.50–1.68)
White, not Hispanic
—
—
Marital status
Never married
-0.0476
0.0857
0.95 (0.82–1.12)
1.09 (0.77–1.55)
Formerly married
0.4834*
0.8050*
1.62 (1.42–1.86)
2.24 (1.36–3.68)
Married
—
—
Residence in metro area
MSA central
0.3227*
0.2823
1.38 (1.16–1.65)
1.33 (0.88–2.00)
MSA other
0.2110*
-0.0058
1.23 (1.03–1.47)
0.99 (0.66–1.51)
non-MSA
—
—
Residence-region
Northeast
-0.2373*
0.1695
0.79 (0.66–0.94)
1.18 (0.80–1.74)
Midwest
-0.3624*
-0.0715
0.70 (0.59–0.82)
0.93 (0.61–1.43)
South
0.0078
0.5909*
1.01 (0.86–1.18)
1.81 (1.20–2.71)
West
—
—
Poverty
0–149%
0.1634*
0.0156
1.18 (1.03–1.34)
1.02 (0.75–1.37)
150% or more
—
—
Years of education
Less than 12 years
-0.2251*
0.4254*
0.80 (0.67–0.94)
1.53 (1.03–2.26)
12 years
-0.2379*
0.1374
0.79 (0.71–0.87)
1.15 (0.86–1.53)
13 years or more
—
—
Age
15–19
-0.4555*
0.2697
0.63 (0.46–0.88)
1.31 (0.52–3.29)
20–24
0.5249*
0.1734
1.69 (1.37–2.09)
1.19 (0.55–2.55)
25–29
0.6969*
0.1901
2.01 (1.69–2.39)
1.21 (0.56–2.61)
30–34
0.5974*
0.4478
1.82 (1.54–2.14)
1.56 (0.75–3.28)
35–39
0.3486*
-0.2564
1.42 (1.21–1.65)
0.77 (0.35–1.70)
40–44
—
—
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Odds Ratio Coefficient (95 percent confidence interval)
Model Parameter
Not Pregnant
Pregnant
Not Pregnant
Pregnant
HIV risk
Moderate/high HIV risk
1.2189*
1.4694*
3.38 (2.77–4.13)
4.34 (2.25–8.41)
Low HIV risk
—
—
NOTE: MSA = metropolitan statistical area.
a Both logistic regression models provide a significant fit to the data (p < .00001). For not pregnant women, the model classifies 71 percent of the observed values correctly. For pregnant women, the model classifies 63% of the observed values correctly. Starred coefficients (*) denote statistical significance at p = .05.
b A total of 1,472 survey respondents reported that they were either pregnant at the time of the interview (430), had completed a pregnancy with 12 months of the interview (1,039), or had received pre- or postnatal care in the last 12 months (1,140). Women referred to as "pregnant" in this table refer to women who were pregnant, or recently pregnant, at the time of the interview.
