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Oil Spill Risks From Tank Vessel Lightering (1998)

Chapter: Front Matter

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Oil Spill Risks From Tank Vessel Lightering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6312.
×

Oil Spill Risks from Tank Vessel Lightering

Committee on Oil Spill Risks from Tank Vessel Lightering

Marine Board

Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems

National Research Council

NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C.
1998

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Oil Spill Risks From Tank Vessel Lightering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6312.
×

NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
2101 Constitution Avenue, NW Washington, D.C. 20418

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.

The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.

The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.

This study was supported by Contract DTMA91-94-G-00003 between the National Academy of Sciences and the Maritime Administration of the U.S. Department of Transportation. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 98-75577

International Standard Book Number 0-309-06190-3

Limited copies are available from: Marine Board, Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems, National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418.

Additional copies of this report are available from
National Academy Press,
2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, D.C. 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area); Internet, http://www.nap.edu

Copyright 1998 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Cover Photo Credit: OMI Petrolink.

Printed in the United States of America

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Oil Spill Risks From Tank Vessel Lightering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6312.
×

COMMITTEE ON OIL SPILL RISKS FROM TANK VESSEL LIGHTERING

DON E. KASH, chair,

George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia

TRICIA CLARK,

Oil Spill Division of Texas General Land Office, Austin

ALFRED COLE,

Chevron Shipping Company, Pascagoula, Mississippi

EDWARD C. CROSS,

Plimsoll Shipping, Inc., Houston, Texas

DUANE H. LAIBLE,

Glosten Associates, Inc., Seattle, Washington

J. BRADFORD MOONEY, JR., consultant,

Arlington, Virginia

STEPHEN D. RICKS,

Clean Bay, Inc., Concord, California

EDWIN J. ROLAND,

Bona Shipping (U.S.), Inc., Houston, Texas

RICHARD J. STEADY,

Maritrans Operating Partners, L.P., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

JOHN B. TORGAN,

Save the Bay, Providence, Rhode Island

W.M. von ZHAREN,

Texas A&M University, Galveston

Liaisons of Sponsoring Agencies

STEPHEN L. KANTZ,

U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, D.C.

ZELVIN LEVINE,

U.S. Maritime Administration, Washington, D.C.

Marine Board Liaison

STEVEN T. SCALZO,

Foss Maritime Company, Seattle, Washington

Marine Board Staff

PETER A. JOHNSON, Acting Director

THERESA M. FISHER, Administrative Assistant

LAURA OST, Consultant

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Oil Spill Risks From Tank Vessel Lightering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6312.
×

MARINE BOARD

JAMES M. COLEMAN,

NAE,

chair,

Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge

JERRY A. ASPLAND, vice chair,

The California Maritime Academy, Vallejo

BERNHARD J. ABRAHAMSSON, consultant,

Superior, Wisconsin

LARRY P. ATKINSON,

Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia

PETER F. BONTADELLI,

California Department of Fish and Game, Sacramento

LILLIAN C. BORRONE,

NAE, Port Authority of New York and New Jersey

BILIANA CICIN-SAIN,

University of Delaware, Newark

SYLVIA A. EARLE,

Deep Ocean Exploration and Research, Oakland, California

BILLY L. EDGE,

Texas A&M University, College Station

JOHN W. FARRINGTON,

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts

MARTHA GRABOWSKI,

LeMoyne College and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Cazenovia, New York

R. KEITH MICHEL,

Herbert Engineering, San Francisco, California

JEROME H. MILGRAM,

NAE, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

JAMES D. MURFF,

Exxon Production Research Company, Houston, Texas

STEVEN T. SCALZO,

Foss Maritime Company, Seattle, Washington

MALCOLM L. SPAULDING,

University of Rhode Island, Narragansett

ROD VULOVIC,

Sea-Land Service, Inc., Charlotte, North Carolina

E.G. "SKIP" WARD,

Texas A&M University, College Station

Staff

PETER A. JOHNSON, Acting Director

DANA CAINES, Financial Associate

SUSAN GARBINI, Senior Staff Officer

THERESA M. FISHER, Administrative Assistant

DONNA HENRY, Project Assistant

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Oil Spill Risks From Tank Vessel Lightering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6312.
×

Preface

Lightering first emerged as a common practice in U.S. waters, particularly the Gulf of Mexico, almost 30 years ago. Historically, there has been little reason to question the safety of lightering, despite the apparent risks involved in transferring cargo between two vessels that are under way, drifting, or anchored at sea. However, public concerns about oil spills have drawn congressional attention to lightering in recent years. Concerns have also been raised by some observers of the maritime industry about the safety implications of projected increases in waterborne U.S. oil imports and certain lightering-related provisions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (P.L. 101–380).

The Coast Guard Authorization Act of 1996 (P.L. 104–324) requires the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) to coordinate with the Marine Board of the National Research Council to conduct studies on the risks of oil spills from lightering operations off U.S. coasts. Accordingly, an 11-member committee was convened under the auspices of the Marine Board. The committee was asked to accomplish the following tasks:

  • investigate the frequency and risks of accidents from lightering operations
  • assess the existing regulatory and management framework
  • recommend measures that could reduce the risks of oil spills

The committee was constituted to include members with expertise in tanker and lightering operations, risk assessment, regulatory and management approaches to accident prevention, oil spill accident analysis, environmental protection, international rules and standards, and USCG prevention and enforcement

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Oil Spill Risks From Tank Vessel Lightering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6312.
×

practices. The principle guiding the constitution of the committee and its work, consistent with NRC policy, was not to exclude members with potential biases if they had expertise vital to the study but to seek balance and fair treatment of the subject. The biographies of committee members are provided in Appendix A.

The committee met four times over a one-year period, and subgroups of the committee held one additional meeting and visited three lightering operations in the Gulf of Mexico and one in Delaware Bay (a complete list of meetings and presenters is provided in Appendix B). The committee also reviewed previous studies of lightering safety and collected data on accidents and spills from the USCG, industry groups and individual companies, and state agencies. The data are summarized in the report, and additional details are provided in appendices C, D, and E. Additional background information collected for this study included relevant letters (Appendix F), regulations (Appendix G), and industry safety guidelines and checklists (Appendix H).

The study focused narrowly on the risks of oil spills from lightering, which was defined as the transfer at sea of crude oil or petroleum products from one vessel to another. The committee attempted to identify and assess only those spills that could be directly attributed to the lightering operation rather than spills that may have occurred coincidentally during the approach, transfer, or post-transfer phases of lightering. Bunkering, automatic cargo shutoff valves, formal risk assessment, and a comparison of lightering and alternative methods of oil delivery were beyond the scope of the study.

The committee wishes to acknowledge the contributions of the more than two dozen representatives of industry and government who made presentations during meetings and shared additional background information in other contexts. All of this information was crucial to the study process, especially in light of deficiencies in existing accident databases and the decentralization of the lightering industry.

The committee wishes to acknowledge USCG liaison Lieutenant Commander Stephen L. Kantz, who provided background on the regulatory regime and USCG data on lightering-related accidents and spills. In addition, the committee wishes to thank the persons and organizations listed in Appendix B for their extra efforts and valuable contributions to the study. These include: the Coast Guard Captains of the Port and Marine Safety Office personnel in Houston, Galveston, Philadelphia, Long Island Sound, San Francisco, and San Diego; members of the Industry Taskforce on Offshore Lightering; the firms, SeaRiver Maritime, Skaugen PetroTrans, Inc., Chevron Shipping Company, and Maritrans, who provided special data and hosted visits by committee members; and Dr. Zelvin Levine, the Maritime Administration liaison to the study.

This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspective and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the NRC's Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Oil Spill Risks From Tank Vessel Lightering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6312.
×

institution in making the published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their participation in the review of this report:

Gary L. Borman, University of Wisconsin

Dennis L. Bryant, Haight, Garden, Poor and Havens

John W. Farrington, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Michael J. Herz, Consultant

R. Keith Michel, Herbert Engineering

Ronald P. Nordgren, Rice University

Malcolm L. Spaulding, University of Rhode Island

Emmett G. Ward, Texas A&M University

While the individuals listed above have provided constructive comments and suggestions, it must be emphasized that responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.

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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Oil Spill Risks From Tank Vessel Lightering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6312.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Oil Spill Risks From Tank Vessel Lightering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6312.
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Figures, Tables, and Boxes

Figures

1-1

 

U.S. lightering operations

 

15

1-2

 

Oil spills of more than 10,000 gallons into U.S. maritime waters, 1970 to 1997

 

17

1-3

 

Locations of lightering incidents

 

18

1-4

 

Lightering spills by primary cause, 1984 to 1996

 

19

1-5

 

Lightering spills by secondary cause, 1984 to 1996

 

19

2-1

 

Crude oil deliveries to U.S. ports by lightering, 1986 to 1996

 

30

2-2

 

Designated lightering zones and prohibited areas in the Gulf of Mexico

 

34

3-1

 

Recommended mooring arrangements for offshore lightering

 

58

4-1

 

Timeline for Gulf of Mexico lightering

 

70

E-1

 

San Francisco Bay lightering, 1997

 

113

H-1

 

Typical lightering safety checklist

 

120

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Oil Spill Risks From Tank Vessel Lightering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6312.
×

Tables

 

1-1

 

Lightering Incidents in the Gulf of Mexico, 1993 to 1997

 

23

1-2

 

Spills Attributed Directly to Lightering off U.S. Coasts, 1993 to 1997

 

26

2-1

 

Sources of U.S. Crude Oil Imports Delivered by Offshore Lightering, 1994

 

29

2-2

 

Traditional Lightering Areas in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico

 

35

2-3

 

Regimes for U.S. Coast Guard Control of Lightering Operations

 

39

C-1

 

U.S. Coast Guard CASMAIN Database of Lightering Incidents in U.S. Waters, 1984 to 1996

 

107

E-1

 

Summary of Oil Spills, California, 1992 to 1997

 

111

E-2

 

Summary of Oil Spills, Washington State, 1992 to 1997

 

111

E-3

 

Chevron, Summary of Lightering, West Coast

 

112

E-4

 

British Petroleum, Summary of Lightering, West Coast, 1987 to 1997

 

112

E-5

 

Exxon, Summary of Lightering, West Coast, San Francisco Harbor, 1992 to 1997

 

112

E-6

 

Summary of West Coast Lightering

 

113

E-7

 

Chevron's Overall Lightering Experience, 1970 to 1997

 

113

Boxes

1-1

 

Definitions

 

13

1-2

 

Lightering Worldwide

 

16

1-3

 

A Case of ''Limited Communication''

 

22

2-1

 

Requirements for Spill Response Plans

 

40

2-2

 

Companies That Provide Lightering Services

 

43

2-3

 

Personnel Involved in Lightering Operations

 

44

4-1

 

The Lightering Process

 

71

4-2

 

Responsible Carrier Program

 

76

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The safety record of lightering (the transfer of petroleum cargo at sea from a large tanker to smaller ones) has been excellent in U.S. waters in recent years, as evidenced by the very low rate of spillage of oil both in absolute terms and compared with all other tanker-related accidental spills. The lightering safety record is likely to be maintained or even improved in the future as overall quality improvements in the shipping industry are implemented. Risks can be reduced even further through measures that enhance sound lightering standards and practices, support cooperative industry efforts to maintain safety, and increase the availability of essential information to shipping companies and mariners. Only continued vigilance and attention to safety initiatives can avert serious accidents involving tankers carrying large volumes of oil.

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