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L CONCLUSIONS ED R1:COMMENDATIONS
This study outlines opportunities for greater use of nomads
structive evaluation (NDE) to improve the reliability, of public
works ~nfrastNcture. These infrastructure systems are complex,
have long service lives (e.g., decades), and are sometimes diffi-
cult to access (e.g., below grade). Their continuous operation is
integral to personal and commercial activities.
The operas conclusion of this study ~ that greater use of NDE,
coupled with standardization and a failure analyem framework,
a cost effective way to improve the reliability of public works
infrastructure. By in creasing system reliability, NDE can make
possible new options for design, construction, al ~ maintenance.
A focused effort is needed to achieve this capability. The NDE
pane} sought to delineate directions on specific Dues to show the
effecti~rene" of NDE. Its conclusions and recommendations are, in
order of decreasing priority:
Near Term Demonstration Project
NDE is at the threshold of making significantly increased
contribution to the reliability of public works facilities. The ef-
fectivene" of NDE can be most persuasively shown through a
coordinated field demonstration of bearers techniques rather than
through research add development projects. The status of NDE
three public works areas ~ reviewed in Section H! of this appendix.
Recommendation: A near-term demonstration project must
be conducted to verify the effecti~rene" of NDE. Section IV of this
appendix proposes coordinated field testing of several commer-
ciaDy mailable and emerging NDE methods ~ order to evaluate
their capabilities for providing reliable facility condition informs
tion. One possible case study ~ the exarrunation of a set of urban
streets which pa" over utility comport in different regions of the
country and which are scheduled to be exca~ra~ ~ the near fu-
ture. Standard methods normally used to examine the utilities
and roadways should be employed to establish a baseline set of
data. These should be compared with information obtained by a
vaFiet~r of NDE methods.
65
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~6
Institutional Focus for Reteach, Standards, and Information
Public works systems can benefit firom the existing NDE can
pability and the results of research on NDE. However, at present,
this capability is distributed throughout several institution in in-
dustry, government, and academia, none of which have a principal
responsibility to public works.
Recommendation: Responsibility for promoting NDE within
public works must be given to a central organization In order to
obtain most effective benefits from NDE. This org~ation must
be capable of both fostering NDE "d amunng its relevance. As
Recut in Section At, it would be-expected to (a) carry out
and finance research and development, (b) provide leadership in
development of standards "d user-friendly field instrumentation,
and (c) disseminate information.,
Reliability Strategies for Public Works
Reliability strategies consist of plans for continuous and cony
effective provision of services or products. NDE can be most
effective for public works infrastructure if integrated rhythm an
overall management strategy for systems reliability (Section V).
This management strategy would include an analytic framework
for detection of defects, for failure analysis, ~d for accept/reject
Sections. As noted in Section IT, this strategy car be the bash
of predictive maintenance for public works. Such a strategy
being implemented for electric power plants, where principal fail-
ure modes of key components have been determined, ant NDE of
these components ~ conducted both on-line and intermittently to
evaluate whether repair, replacement, or continued operation
warranted.
Recommendation: A set of reliability strategies needs to be
determined for public works systems. The range of strategies ~
broad from accepting system outages due to frequent failures
(once per year) to continuous monitonug to mmimi~e the occur-
rence of failures alla the ensuing outages. This effort should be
hinted at identifying the distribution of reliability strategies used
today, the critical components dominating system outages, and
appropriate strategies for these systems depending upon factors
such as the t ype of public works system and size and location.
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67
Research and Development on and Standardization of Selected
NDE Methods
Many available NDE methods (dieted in the GIomary) appear
attractive for application to public works systems, but develop
ment and engineering ~ needed for these method to become com-
merciaDy competitive products. In addition, standards have to be
established ~ order for NDE methods to yield consistent results
in the many different public works systems.
Recommendation: Future research on new NDE hardware
and software specifically for infrastructure systems should be con-
ducted. This effort should be directed towards embedded sensors
like fiber optic sensors In new structures, ultrasonic pulse echo
(or impact echo) especially applied to concrete, and thermography
and ground penetrating radar for undergroundstructures and pow
sibly buildings. Along with this capability, user-friendly systems
operating in real tune or near time should be developed for use
the field. These tasks are described In Section V.
Recommendation: Considerable attention must be given to
NDE standardization. Section V! notes that standards should be
established in the areas of methodologies, data analysis, and paw
fail rules or criteria. Methodology includes both the equipment
and its employment; analysis extends Tom simple to complex
signal processing; pas~fail criteria refer to data interpretation in
the context of accep~reject Sections for continued operation.
II. INT1LODUCTION
Facilities deteriorate over time, and the cumulative eEects of
corrosion, wear and tear, fatigue, freeze-thaw cycles, etc., can e~ren-
tuaDy undermine the structural integrity or functional capability
of facilities comprising our nation's infrastructure. Maintenance
activities are needed to protect structures from deterioration and
preserve their integrity. In turn, improved design is necessary both
to reduce the required maintenance as wed as to facilitate it.
Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) offers infrastructure man-
agers tools which can help them to design, operate, and maintain
their facilities in a more cos~effective manner. NDE involves both
probing structures, for flaws and other features with techniques
which do not damage the structures and evaluating the residual
integrity of the structure. This concept has recently emerged from
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the more generic term, nondestructive testing, which refers to flaw
detection.
Reliable condition information, coupled with effective mod-
els and decmon support tools, can lead to unproved ma~nten~ce
management, which ~ turn, offers the potential of reduced costs
to m~nt~un our public facilities. An example of this has been
demo~tra~ by the use of NDE for cIames of electric power gen-
erating plants (Armor, et al, 1981~. Key components in the failure
profile of fossil-fuel fired plants are the boiler, turbine, "d stern
generator, which lead to 25, 2, and 5 days outage per year of per
baseload plant, respectively; these outages total about $30 million
annually, since each unscheduled outage costs about $1 million
per plant per day. The dominant failure modes of each compm
nent ~d fruitful areas for on-~ne nondestructive monitoring have
been estabILshed. Specifically, NDE provides information regard-
ing the likely impact of Baws on the structural integrity of these
components in time for planned maintenance rather than repair
during ~ unscheduled outage. NDE can also medicate unexpected
and unacceptable plant operating condition that arise, so that
appropriate modifications can be implemented.
When used as part of an overall reliability strategy, NDE
may also allow design and maintenance options not otherwise
possible. The interest in design of structural components with
nominally brittle ceramics has led to a requirement for NDE dur-
ing both processing and service of these components (Katz ~d
Lenoe, 1981; Evans, 1981~. An NDEYbased maintenance option
~ the "retirement-for-cause~ program In the Department of DO
feme. Implementation of this program would change the basis for
replacement of a critical component from an arbitrary time of ser-
~rice to the detection by NDE of a design-critical Eaw; thus NDE
will lead to substantially increased time of service and cost effec-
tivene" of each component (Thompson and Thompson, 1981~.
Because ex~t~g infrastructure systems represent an enor-
mous financial investment Ed have extremely long design lives,
reliability strategies should emphasize maintenance. The total
maintenance in~restment will deepens upon the specific facility en ~
the maintenance strategy. The bases for maintenance strategic
include:
I. Post-fai~ure repair as needed - repair facilities wicn neces-
sary after senous problems develop. It ~ likely that the
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~9
repa~r-a~needed strategy wiD result ~ the highest total
cost because the extent of deterioration win have proceeded
to the point where major and costly rehabilitation will be
needed to restore the facility.
2. Continual preventive maintenance - develop routine main-
tenance to prcac~vc facilities and apply maintenance con-
tinuously. The preventi~re-mamtenance strategy will adroit
the costly rehabilitation expense by keeping the facility in
sound condition; however, the routine maintenance costs
may be significant. Managers need to know the tradeoffs
between the routine maintenance costs and rehabilitation
costs.
3. Predictive maintenance - monitor facility conditions and
maintain facilities based upon condition information and
predicted likely future condition. This strategy requires con-
stant feedback of reliable information on facility conditions
so that managers car' amps the deterioration trends of the
facility. As a facility beams to enter a rapid deterioration
phase, protective maintenance activities are undertaken.
Predictive ma~ntensuce ~ bred on the premise that m~nte-
nar~ce should be invested In facilities prior to the onset of accel-
crated deterioration. It ~ a cost~effective way for infrastructure
managers to mamta~n the facilities ~d prolong their useful lives.
Its Widespread use will require techniques such as elective NDE to
mo~tor facilibr condition systematicaBy, modem and associated
data bases to predict facility detenoration, and Section support
methodologies to assist mar~agers in allocating the maintenance
and rehabilitation funds.
Various NDE methods are already employed within current
infrastructure inspection routines, including visual, laser, elec-
trocheniical, and acoustic techniques (ManDing, 1985; Burdekin,
et al, Ig86; Brown ~d CaldweD, 1984; Wibon, 1985; C~iforma
Dept. of Water Resources, 1986~. These have been incorporated
maintenance procedures on 8 piecemeal basis. One extremely suc-
ce~fu} application of modern NDE technology ~ the correlation
leak detector (Califc~rma Dept. of Water Resources, 1986~. This
technique malces it possible to use a small hand-held system with
two detectors to pinpoint the location of a water leak. Because
of its cost benefits, this system has been widely adopted since its
inception in 1978.
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70
This study discuses opportunities for greater use of NDE In
condition assessment arid overall reliability strategies for public
works, in order to achieve both better design and more effective
managenal strategies for operation of these systems. It is timely
to examine these opportunities, since NDE has developed rapidly
within the last two decades through ad~r~ncen in instruments
tion, understanding of the interaction of radiation tenth defects In
materiab Ed components, appreciation of the role of defects in
material and structures, and recognition of the economic lever-
age of reliable structural performance. Section m of this report
discusses the use of and need for NDE techniques ~ three repre-
sentative infrastructure systems. The concept of a project with
near-term payoff is proposed in Section IV to demonstrate and
evaluate the capabilities of NDE for the infrastructure; a specific
example ~ given as wed. Section V describes research needs to
enhance the role of NDE In infrastructure assessment. In Section
V], institutional issues are noted.
HL STATUS OF ODE ~ SELECTED
PUBLIC WOWS 53YI311:MS
A wide range of NDE techniques is available for use in assent
ing the condition of the nation's infrastructure. Brief descriptions
of some of the more important method now ~ use along with
some possible emerging techniques for infrastructure Ferment
are presented in the GIomary "d In Table 1. Current applications
of these techniques in three specific public works areas ---highways,
buildings (mostly above grade), and water supply pipes (below
grade) are described In this section; no priority ~ designated.
Hi~w"e
Definition of Highway System
In the context of this review, Highway systems refers to
pavements and bridges intended to carry high-speed, high-volume
traffic. Typically, the pavements are of concrete, with or without
reinforcement. Very often the concrete slabs have been covered
tenth asphalt o~rerIays. Bridges are composed of steel or reinforced
concrete superstructures, arid bridge decks are typically reinforced
concrete. The advances made in the development of NDE methods
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for the evaluation of highway oysters have been made possible
by the concerted efforts of the Fevers Highway Adn~nistration
and state highway departments. Little work has been performed
directly on NDE inspection techniques suited specifically for city
streets which are typically asphalt concrete pavements supported
by prepared subgrades. The nature of the deteriorating actions
are not identical for these two broad classes of highway systems.
However, it may be possible to transfer some of the technological
solution Tom state and federal highway programs.
Types of Defects or Deterioration
For concrete pavements containing steel reinforcement, one of
the major forrrm of deterioration ~ cracking due to the disruptive
stremes arming from corrosion of the steel. Extensive research has
shown that the premature failures here resulted from the exten-
sive application of deicing chemical. The chloride ions negate
the normally protective (alksdine) environment provided by con-
crete for the embedded steel reinforcing elements so that these
elements are prone to corrosion in the presence of moisture and
oxygen. Chemical incompatibilities among the matenab used to
make the concrete or the clisrupti~re action of multiple cycles of
freezing and thawing are other causes of concrete pavement d~
terioration. These can only be effectively controBed by proper
selection of materials and TIiixture proportioning during concrete
production. FmaDy, the disruption of the subgrade can lead to
pavement cracking.
Bridges are more vulnerable than pavements to deterioration
because of the more severe loading and exposure conditions. For
example, normal fluctuation ~ ambient temperature cause dif-
ferential movements which, if not carefully considered in design,
can lead to high stresses. Bridges are aL30 subject to high cyclic
stresses, which tend to reduce the strength of the material. BY
cause of these factors and the grave consequences of a failure,
bridge inspection becomes ~ key element of the infrastructure
maintenance program.
For steel bridges, the prmcip^1 cause of distress are corrosion
and cracking which usually arise from cyclic Joshing in combi-
nation with poor design details. For reinforced and prestressed
concrete bridges, the major canes of Hatred are environmental
deterioration of the concrete and corrosion of embedded steel.
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(the EPRI NDE Center of the J.A. Jones Applied Research Com-
pany, Charlotte, North Carolina) funded by the Electric Power
Research Institute. This laboratory conducts research, qualifies
techniques for engineering application, used conducts training of
personnel for field testing. It is generally recognized that these
capabilities far exceed those which could be justified by m~i~ridual
electric utility complies.
Another example ~ the American Welding Institute (Knox-
grille, Tennessee) which was formed in 1984 under the premise that
welding technology is critical to the reliability of many systems,
but that it ~ not an area of focus for corporations designing and
manufacturing these systenm. Therefore, amiable and emerging
capabilities have not been brought into application as quickly
possible, sometimes comprom7R=g the effectiveness of the welding
technology actuaBy used.
It is the opinion of this study pane} that the use of NDE in
public works mirrors the above two examples and that a central
organization ~ needed to provide leadership In research and devel-
opment capability, in engineering qualificatioII of NDE techniques,
and In personnel training. This organization Should aLso serve as
a central source for dissemination of information on techniques
add standards as weD as for trar'rfer~g Formation on research
to utilities and other interested parties. Fir' ally, this organization
should also participate ~ establishing standard and be able to
compare the standards used In different NDE public works groups
throughout the country.
Most public works utilities win have some resident or m-house
NDE expertise. However, the level of expertise required for some
specialty NDE methods, and the equipment for these methods,
may be provided more effectively by personnel operating out of
regional centers rather than within each utility. Such regional
groups would genre as a conduit of information to and from the
central organization descnbe.d above to brag both problems and
solutions to the attention of appropriate persons.
Personnel Faming
Greater emphasm has been placed on engineering system ret
liability now than ever before. Thus, there is a great demand for
persons with knowledge of NDE methods. Only a few universities
offer multiple courses and multifaceted research programs in NDE,
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91
ar ~ their graduates are sought by firms ~ industries (or research
and development areas) supporting the university research. A pa=-
alle} shortage of termed emaciate engineers or technicians exists
as well. It ~ unlikely that this shortage will be relieved ~ the
near future, so that infrastructure systems will have to compete
for ND~trmned personnel. In contrast to the deficit ~ initial
training programs, there appears to be ample number of refresher
courses on NDE methods.
ODE Standards
in order to consistently apply NDE methods, standards have
to be established for their use. Though many elements of the
standards process already emit, they are inadequate for compre-
hensive application of NDE methods to public works and for broad
acceptance of information provided by NDE.
Standards should be established in the areas of methodoic)gy,
analysis, And pass/fai} rules or criteria. Methodology includes
the type of NDE equipment add the process by which it is am
plied. The NDE equipment should accurately measure quantities
required. Necessary response ranges, safety,, and ruggedn-A need
to be established. The process should be established which cons~
tently applies the NDE equipment. This Cures that comparative
results can be consistent. Appropriate calibration of the equip
ment to laboratory standards and to field conditions should be
included ~ the methodology standards requirements.
Analysis of NDE data ranges from very simple counts to com-
plex signal proce-ins. Because of this, method need to be em
tumbled through standards for consistent data interpretation and
comparison. As application of NDE methods expand, more em-
phasis is placed on user-friendly equipment which puts the method
in more hands for greater use. The establishment of standards for
methods of analysis would a - let ~ this opportunity.
NDE method provide the data for interpretation and decision
making. In many Stances the data and resulting analysm provide
information which cannot be classed as pa" or fail, In other ~n-
stances it does. Standards or guidelines should be provided which
include rules for use of the information resulting from aneurysm.
Some rules are already established by existing standards which
can be cros~referencetl. In the process of establishing rules, the
need would be revealed for new ones.
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VIL GLOSSARY
Acoustic Erni~ion: When strew ~ applied to a body and cracks
or faults propagate through it, acoustic wares are emitted.
Thus, acoustic emission can be an indicator of the onset of
structural faults. The direct obeenration of the sound emitted
Tom a water or gas leak con be a very powerful and simple
nondestructive evaluation technique.
Acoustic Resonance Methods: A common method for finding
structural flaws, such as the presence of delaminations or
of cracks in metal structures, ~ to tap the structure with a
hammer and listen for the resonant vibration. The sound wild
change when there ~ a fault present. A chain can be dragged
scrod a structure to carry out this measurement on a Isrger
scale. It ~8 also possible to determine the frequency content
of the recorded vibrations, so as to carry out a more detailed
quantitative analysm. This technique, although an extremely
powerful one for showing up the presence of a fault, does not
readily pinpoint its location.
Chemical Techniques: The presence of moisture Ed acidity or al-
lcalinity can be detected by change ~ color of certain chemical
semors such as litmus paper.
Correlation Water Leak Testing: An extremely powerful method
for locating a leak ~ to use two microphones to measure the
acoustic emotion Tom a leak. The recorded signals are subject
to a signal processing method known ~ correlation analysis
which can be determined by the position of the leak tenth
respect to the microphone locations.
Displacement Gages: Tlnese are used to measure the relative mo-
tion between two reference pointy Vanous techniques are
available depending on the magnitude of displacements that
must be measured and the distance between reference points.
For relatively large displacements between Extant points on
a structure, electro~optical gages are a~railable. For measunng
small displacements between closely spaced points, mechanics
and electrical gages are a~railable.
Dye Penetrants: A structure can be coated with a simple or
fluorescent dye whith glows under ultraviolet light. This is a
simple and quick technique for recreating the presence of small
surface cracks.
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Eddy Current Techniques: Ecidy current testing involves mew
surement of the impudence of a small coil excited by a radio
frequency current, when it is moved along the surface of a
metal conductor. If there ~ a crack or flow near the surface of
the conductor, an impedance change ~ obeer~red. This tech-
~uque ~ most useful for obse~r~g small near surface cracks in
metal.
Electrochemical Methods: Measurement of the frontage potential
between a copper/copper suEate half-cell, placed on the sur-
face of concrete, and the embedded reinforcement can be used
to deliniate regions of corrosion activity. Polarization tech-
niques are under development that would glare indications of
corrosion rate. The latter method will be extremely useful in
the prediction of remaining life.
Fiber Optic Sensors: Optical fibers can be buried In the ground.
In building structures and so on during the course of co~truc-
tion. Sensors for various types of liquids, gases, temperature
measurement, pressure, displacement, strain and so on can be
either part of the fiber itself or care be attached to the fiber.
The fiber optic semore can ~ In prmc~ple, be interrogated from
time to time, even many yeam after ~rmtaBation. The fibers
tales up very little room, are impervious to electromagnetic
interference, and their presence does not affect structural m-
te~ty to any great degree. Fiber optic semors here not been
used in inhastructural application, and are still very much in
the reteach stage. However, they may be widely up ~ the
future as they become more fully developed.
Gas Leak Detection with Lacers: This technique uses sensors
which are sensitive to certain tracer gases. Such tracers are
inserted into a pipe under pressure, and their leakage ~ used
to detect the presence of cracks.
Ground Radar: Short pulse radar techniques have been developed
for detecting delamination In bridge decks for locating buried
pipes, and for detecting flaws ~ concrete.
Holography: By recording a photographic image of the optical
hinges caused by interference between an optical beam ret
fiected from a surface and a reference beam, it ~ possible to
obtain a Lenitive measure of surface displacement. Such tech-
zuques can be USA to look at changes of shape tenth time of a
structure, or to measure vibration amplitudes of a structure.
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Magnetic Field Measurements: When there are ferromagnetic ma-
terials, such as pipes, buried in the ground, measurement of
smug anomalies of the magnetic field with a detector moored
over the surface of the ground can show up the presence of
buried structures. This technique can also be used to detect
cracks in steel components.
Neutron Absorption: The absorption of neutrons pawing through
maternal can be used to measure density. Changes ~ absorb
tion can be employed to measure the moisture content.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR): This relatively new tech-
nique has been applied mainly In medical applications. Its
application to structural components has been demonstrated
at Southwest Research Institute. It ~ useful for determ~n-
ing the moisture content in materiab. At the present tune,
the large magnets it needs, along with the sophisticated com-
puter proce - sing required makes the system too sophisticated,
bulky ~d expensive to be applied to infrastructure amen
meet. However, this may change.
Odor Sensing: This technique ~ useful for determining the prep
ence of leaks of certain gases =d vapors. It is subjective, and
erratic as a testing method because it relies on the judgment
of the Spector.
Radiography: X-ray, gamma ray and other penetrating radiation
can be used to detect cracks, voids and foreign materiak
In stmctural components. Although it can be effective, the
apparatus is bulky, and requires personnel access to be limited
while the work ~ in progre - . It ~ unsuitable for use ~ the
field to examine components which are more than one foot
thiclt.
Stereo Photography: Stereo photography is a simpler and less
sensitive technique than holography for measuring the shape
and size of structures. It can determine whether distortions
in the shape of a structure have taken place ogres a period of
time.
Strain Gages: A strain gage measures the change In reactance of
a small wire or foil when it ~ stretched. When this gage is
bonded to a structure such as a bridge member, it can measure
the strain produced by applied loads.
Television Inspection: This technique is like direct visual inspec-
tion. A TV camera can be inserted in, for instance, a sewer
pipe to determine the conditions inside the pipe.
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Thermography: An infrared camera m USA to observe small maria
tion in surface temperature. When a pavement, for example, is
heated by the sun, the presence delamination causes aroma
lies In the surface temperature which are detected by the
camera. In other applications, by using pulsed heat sources,
more detailed information on the depth and location of inter-
nal structures can be obtained.
Ultrasonic Testmg: In the pull technique a high frequency
strew puke ~ introduced into an object and the reflection from
interfaces are recorded. Pulse echo method are commonly
used for finding faults such as Roil and cracks In metal struc-
tures. Such techniques are being developed with relatively
low frequency pulses for ex=TnT.~ng concrete. Measurements
of the attenuation and precocity of acoustic warren can also pros
vice "formation on the porosity of material, delamination,
and the quality of bond between the two different materi-
~. ~ this case the through transaction method ~ USA in
which the tra~it time between a tr~m~tting and a receiving
traducer ~ measured.
Visual Inspection: V]BU^1 inspection ~ the supplest aDd most
commonly used technique for evaluating amide range offaulta.
It ~ often the only NDE technique available, but it ~ labor
intermive, and only shows up surface anomalies. The quality
of visual inspection is highly subjective and is dependent on
the experience of the inspector.
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Table 1. Features Measured by Vanous NDE Methods
Features Voids & Cracke Strain
Location of
R~inforcement
Densit~r Motion ~ Interfaces
Radiography G F G N G
Neutron
Scattering ~
Reflection N N G N N
Visual G (surface) N N G N
Tele~rision G (surface) N N G N
Photography
(stereo) G F N N N
Holography F G N G N
Fiber optic
Sensor G G N N N
Thermog~phy F N N ~N
Ultrasonic
Testing G F F N G
Acoustic
Resonance
(semmic) G (in concrete) N F N F
Acoustic
Emission E. (dynamic) N N N N
Correlation
Water Leak
Testing N N N N N
Eddy current G (surface) N N N N
Ground radar G N N N G
Magnetic Field
Measurements F N N N F
Displacement
(Gage) F G N G N
Strain gage F G N G N
Dye penetrant G (surface) N N N N
Odor eensor N N N N N
Chemical N N N N N
Le~ detection N N N N N
Electrochemical
Methode ~N N N N
NMR N N N N N
Note: Letters in Table indicate relative detectability of {eature by each
technique.
Key: G = Good
F = Fair
N = Not Detectable
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Table 1. Features Measured by Various NDE Methode (continued)
Dimensional Location
Stability of Embedded
Features Corrosion Moisture ~ Warpa~e . 13tn~ctures
.
Radiography E. N N G
Neutron
Absorption ~
Reflection N G N N
Visual G G G N
Tele~rision N N N N
Photography
(stereo) G (outaide) N G N
Holography N N G N
Fiber optic
Sensor N N G N N
Thermography N G N F G
Ultr~onic
Testing F ~N G N
Acoustic
.
. [esonance
(seioniic) N N N F N
Acoustic
Emission N N N N G
Correlation
Water Leak
Testing N N N N G
Eddy current N N N G N
Ground radar N N N G F
Magnetic Field
Measurements N N N F N
Displacement
(Gage) N N G N N
Strain gage N N G N N
Dye penetrant N N N N N
Odor sensor N F N N G
Chemical N G N N F
Le~c detection N N N N G
Electrocheniical
Methode G F N N N
NMR N G N N N
N
G
G
N
N
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Table 2. Representative Examples of U.S. Institutiom Conduct~g R - earch and
De~relopment in Nondestnactive E`raluation
Areas of Effort
-
Representati~re
Examules of NDE Technioue De~relonmcnt
Institutions Grou~d
Conductin ~Penetrat~g
R&D on NDE Acoustic Electroma~rneticThermo~raDhic Radar
Rockwell Science
Center
X X
Jones Associates X
United Tech.
Research Center X
Schlumberger X
Southwest Research
Institute X XX
Concrete Technology
Laboratory X
Wiss, Janney, Eletner
Assoc. Inc. X XX
Johns Hopkine University X X
Ohio State Uni~rersity X X
Stanford Uni~rersity X X
National Bureau of
Standards X X X X
Ames Lab (Iowa
State Uni~reraity) X X X
Argonne Natl. Lab X X
Batelle Pacific
Northwest Lab
Idaho National
Engrg. Lab
Oak Ridge
National Lab
Waterways Exper.
Station
Na~ral Constr.
Engrg. Lab
X X
X
X X
X
t
X
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Table 2. Representative Examplce of U.S. Institutione Conducting Research and
De~relopment in Nondestructi~re E,raluation (continued)
Areas of Effort
Representati~re
Examples of
Institutions Materials Charactensation ~rith NDE Methods
Conductin~r Pobmer Geotechnical
R&D in ND E Met ale Ceramice C'omPosites Concrete _S tructure
Rockwell Science X X X
Center
Jones Associates X
United Tech.
Research Center X
Schlumberger
Southwest Re~search
Institute
X
X
X X X
Concrete Technology
Laboratory X
Wi", Janney, Eletner
~oc. inc. X X X
Johns Hopkins Uni~r. X X X
Ohio State Uni~rersity X X X
Stantord University X
Natl. Bureau
of Standarde X X X X
Ames Lab (Iowa
State Uni~remity) X X X
Argonne Natl. Lab X X
Batelle Pacific
Northwest Lab X
Idaho National
Engrg. Lab
O~k Ridge
National Lab
Waterways Exper.
Station
Na~ral Constr.
Engrg. Lab X
X X
X X
X X
OCR for page 100
100
Table 2. Representati~re E:,camples of U.S. Institution Conducting Research Ad
De~relopment in Nondestnacti~re Evaluation (continued)
Areas of Effort
Reoresentati~re
Examples of
Institutions
Conducting
R&D on NDE Aircraft Enemy Plants Infrastructure Building
Component
_S~rstem Characterization with NDE Methods
Rockwell Science
Center X
Jones Associates X
United Tech.
Research Center X
Schlumberger
Southwest Research
Institute X X X
Concrete Technology
Laboratory X X X
Wise, Janney, Elatner
A"oc. Inc. X X X
Johns Hopkins University X X
Ohio State University X X
Stanford IJni~rersity
Natl. Bureau
of Standards
Ames Lab (Iowa
State University)
Argonne Natl. Lab
Batelle Pacific
Northwest Lab
X
X X
X
X X
X
X
Idaho National
Engrg. Lab X
Oak Ridge
National Lab X
Waterways Eloper.
Station X
Natural Constr.
Engrg. Lab X X
Representative terms from entire chapter:
nde methods
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