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OCR for page 30
Characteristics of Exchange Participants
There were SO Chinese students and scholars in the first group to
come to the United States after Sino-American educational exchanges
resumed. They arrived in Washington, D.C., in late 1978, with only the
slightest preparation for their experience in America. They had a diffi-
cult time. By the 1984-1985 academic year, the number of Chinese
students and scholars in the United States had grown to about 14,000,~
and, for the most part, they were doing very well. This rapid growth in
the number of Chinese students and scholars in the United States is
likely to continue in the immediate future; if it does, China may have
more students and scholars in America by the early 1990s than any other
country has.
An analysis of the personal profiles and academic characteristics of
the PRC Chinese exchange participants reveals patterns with signifi-
cance which transcends academic exchange. One of the major themes of
this chapter—and indeed of the entire study is that the character of
the Sino-American academic relationship from 1979 through 1984 has
been shaped very considerably by China's status as a developing country
with academic ties to an economically and technologically advanced
nation. The scientific and technological emphasis of the fields of study
of the PRC Chinese in America, the unbalanced flow of students and
scholars between China and the United States, the low priority
accorded the study of agriculture by the Chinese, and American interest
in pursuing work in the humanities and social sciences in the PRC all
are characteristic of the academic relations between Third World coun-
30
OCR for page 31
CHARACTERISTICS OF EXCHANGE PARTICIPANTS
31
tries and the United States. Although the Sino-American academic rela-
tionship has its own distinctive character, the broader similarities
should not be overlooked or incorrectly ascribed to the PRC's political
and social system.
The following analysis also reveals a number of exceedingly impor-
tant attributes of the PRC Chinese students and scholars in America.
First, Chinese students and scholars in America have adapted with
remarkable speed to the competitive funding system in the United
States. American universities (drawing funds from many sources) have
become the largest single source of financial support for PRC students
and scholars in the United States, with expenditures exceeding those
made by the Chinese government itself. This development reflects fund-
ing patterns in American schools and the generally high quality of aca-
demic performance of PRC students and scholars on American
campuses.
Second, of the PRC students and scholars who came to the United
States during the 1979-1984 period, about two-thirds were in the physi-
cal and life sciences, engineering, and health sciences. This percentage
is very high compared to other developing countries; it reflects China's
concentration on science and technology as keys to modernization.
Third, although PRC students and scholars are scattered widely
throughout the United States and attend institutions of higher educa-
tion of every description, more than half come from three urban coastal
areas in China (Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangdong Province3. Finally,
the PRC students and scholars who are coming to the United States are
younger and younger. With long careers ahead of them, the impacts of
their experiences in America, whatever they may be, will endure.
In contrast to the detailed information available on PRC students and
scholars in the United States, comparatively little is available on Ameri-
can students and scholars in China. Nonetheless, even this limited infor-
mation underscores the different purposes that the exchanges serve for
the two nations. Of the American students and scholars who have gone
to China for research and study, about two-thirds have been in the
social sciences and humanities, their principal interest has been in Chi-
nese culture, history, and society.
PRC STUDENTS AND SCHOLARS IN AME:1UCA
Numbers of PRC Students and Visiting Scholars, 1979-1984
Both American and Chinese records show that the number of Chinese
exchange visitors coming to the United States grew dramatically
OCR for page 32
32 A RELATIONSHIP RESTORED
TABLE 3-1 ]-1 and F-1 Visas Issued in the PRC, 1979 Through 1983
Year ]-1 Visas F-1 Visas Total
1979 807 523 1,330
1980 1,986 2,338 4,324
1981 3,066 2,341 5,407
1982 3,327 1,153 4,480
1983 3,328 1,003 4,331
Total 12,514 7,358 19,872
SOURCE: Consular reports, U.S. Department of State.
between 1979 and 1984. From 1979 through 1983, 19,872 scholarly
exchange visas were issued to PRC Chinese. Of these, 63 percent were
]-1 visas and 37 percent were F-1 visas. (See Tables 3-1 and 3-2 and visa
definitions in the Glossary.) Actually, the number of Chinese who have
come to the United States is smaller, since some scholars return to China
during their course of study, are issued new visas before returning, and
therefore are counted twice. Also, presumably, a few of these persons
issued visas do not, in fact, come to the United States. It can be stated
with certainty, then, that no more than 19,872 PRC students and
scholars came to the United States during this period. One can safely
infer that the number of such persons who have come to the United
States during the 1979-1983 period is close to the 19,000 mark.2
In April 1984 the Chinese released fragmentary and imprecise data
that set a lower figure for the total number of PRC exchange visitors
who came to the United States from 1979 through 1983 (see note 2 in
this chapter).3 Slight double-counting in compiling statistics for this
report may account for some of the discrepancy, but the main reason is
thought to lie with the Chinese systems for collecting data and issuing
exit permits. In May 1984, CSCPRC staff interviewed officials of the
Chinese Ministry of Education (MOE), who spoke candidly of two
problems. First, their information system is not automated; their statis-
TABLE 3-2 New and Continuing PRC Students and Scholars with ]-1
Visas, 1979 Through 1983
Year New Continuing Total
1979 891 134 1,025
1980 1,854 866 2,720
1981 3,210 2,358 5,568
1982 3,077 3,894 6,971
1983 3,190 4,550 7,740
Total 12,222
SOURCE: USIA data tape.
OCR for page 33
CHARACTERISTICS OF EXCHANGE PARTICIPANTS
33
tics are "not good." Second, the MOE is not in full control of the process
by which exit permits are issued, since other ministries can also issue
them namely, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Public Security
Bureau, and the provincial and municipal bureaus of foreign affairs.4
China's leaders clearly knew of the coordination problem, and in mid-
1985 they took one step to ease it when a State Education Commission
was established and the Ministry of Education abolished. This move
obviously was directed at other problems as well, not merely at sending
students abroad.
The annual total of scholarly exchange visas (both J-1 and F-1) issued
from 1979 to 1983 peaked at 5,407 in 1981. This overall pattern, how-
ever, obscures differences between the two visa types. The number of
]-1 visas increased rapidly through 1982 and then leveled off in 1983,
presumably reflecting the start-up time needed to select and prepare
students and scholars to go abroad under PRC government auspices.
For students with F-1 visas, an immediate postnormalization surge was
followed by a decline in 1982 and 1983. While a number of reasons may
explain the drop, two factors appear to have been official Chinese gov-
ernment discouragement of privately sponsored arrangements at that
time and tighter U.S. immigration restrictions.
Academic enrollments of Chinese students show the same kind of
growth as visa statistics. According to estimates by the Institute of Inter-
national Education (IIE) in its annual census of foreign students in
America, 1,000 Chinese students were enrolled at American institutions
of higher education in academic year 1979-1980. By academic year
1983-1984, this number had risen to 8,140.5 These numbers include
both J-1 and F-1 students; they do not include nonmatriculated "visiting
scholars" who are not degree candidates. The latter group comprises a
significant percentage of the PRC students and scholars coming to the
United States on ]-1 visas (Table 3-3~.
More information is available on the ]-1 visa holders than on F-1 visa
holders. Most of it is drawn from the IAP-66 form required for all ]-ls,
which authorizes the student or scholar to enter a program for one year;
the form is reissued annually, although it is unnecessary to obtain a new
visa each year. With data collected from this form, it is possible to
distinguish among students entering a U.S. program for the first time,
continuing in the same program, and transferring to a different pro-
gram. By 1983 the number of J-ls in the United States had reached
7,740 (Table 3-2~. Each year the number of continuing J-1 students and
scholars increased as more and more stayed to continue their studies. By
1982, continuing ]-ls outnumbered the new ones.
From 1979 through 1983, the percentage of students among ]-ls
OCR for page 34
34
A RELATIONSHIP RESTORED
TABLE 3-3 Percentage Distribution of PRC J-1 Students and Scholars
by Category, 1979 Through 1983
Occupation 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983
Student 18 18 21 29 41
Trainee 2 4 3 2 2
Teacher 0 1 1 1 1
Professor 3 5 5 4 3
Research scholar 69 68 67 61 52
International visitor 3 3 2 3 2
Professional trainee 5 2 1 1 1
Total 100 100 100 100 100
N= (1,025) (2,720) (5,568) (6,971) (7,740)
_
SOURCE: USIA data tape.
increased while the percentage of "research scholars" declined.6 The
increase occurred because many students remain for several years to
complete their degrees ant] because the percentage of students among
new visa holders has been growing since 1979 (see Table 3-4~. Percent-
ages in other categories ("trainees," generally sponsored by an American
business or foundation; "teachers," who teach at levels other than col-
lege; "professors"; "international visitors," who usually are sponsored
by an agency of the United Nations; and "professional trainees," gener-
ally in the health sciences) have remained approximately the same.
At present, there is no way to determine precisely and directly the
number of PRC F-1 students in the United States each year. However,
using the average length-of-stay information for F-ls (Table 3-5) and the
TABLE 3-4 Percentage Distribution of PRC ]-1 Students and Scholars
Entering New Programs, by Category, 1979 Through 1983
Occupation 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983
Student 16 20 21 31 43
Trainee 2 2 4 3 3
Teacher 0 1 2 1 1
Professor 3 5 5 5 4
Research scholar 71 66 63 55 45
International visitor 3 4 3 4 3
Professional trainee 4 1 1 1 1
Total 100 100 100 100 100
N = (890) (1,854) (3,210) (3,077) (3,190)
NOTE: "Entering new programs" is a USIA appellation, which indicates persons who are
entering the United States. If J-1 visa holders switch fields of study once they are already in
the United States, they are not counted as entering new programs.
SOURCE: USIA data tape.
OCR for page 35
CHARACTERISTICS OF EXCHANGE PARTICIPANTS
TABLE 3-5 Planned Length of Stay in United States
of PRC F-1 and ]-1 Visa Holders
Planned
Length of
Stay in
United States (months)
-
Visa Type (percent)
J-1 F-1
3Orless 4 0
4-6 5 1
7-12 30 3
13-24 36 22
25-36 6 21
37-48 12 32
49-60 6 20
More than 60 1 1
Total 100 100
N = (3,141)a (927)b
aPercentage of missing data excluded from total is 2 percent.
bPercentage of missing data excluded from total is 3 percent.
SOURCE: Records of visas issued in 1983.
35
number of F-1 visas issued (Table 3-1), it is estimated that slightly more
than 5,000 F-1 students from the PRC were in the United States at the
end of 1983. Unfortunately, the relevant immigration document, the "I-
20" (see Glossary), was not available for this study. It would be helpful
to policymakers and analysts if the U.S. Immigration and Naturaliza-
tion Service (INS) would computerize these data (as is understood to be
the intention of the INS). It is too early to know what percentage of
PRC F-1 students will return home, but it is known that a substantial
number of all foreign students on F-1 visas either remain in the United
States after obtaining their degrees or stay on in America without finish-
ing their studies.
Projections of future trends in Sino-American exchange must be
based on assumptions about the number of individuals the Chinese will
send, the number the United States will admit, and the average period
that different categories of PRC students and scholars will stay. Using
the information on the intended lengths of stay for both visa categories
(Table 3-5), the number of "new" and "continuing" students and
scholars from 1984 through 1990 can be estimated.
One probable scenario assumes that the number of ]-1 visas issued
annually reaches 5,000 by 1986 and that the number of F-ls increases
by 500 each year from 1984 to 1987. Under these circumstances (Table
3-6), slightly more than 19,000 PRC students and scholars would be in
the United States at any one time by 1990, still fewer than the 21,960
OCR for page 36
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OCR for page 37
CHaRACTERISTICS OF EXCHANGE PARTICIPANTS
~ . ~ ~ .
37
students from laiwan who were in the United States during academic
year 1983-1984.7 From the vantage point of mid-1985, however, this
scenario appears conservative. During the first eight months of 1985, in
Beijing alone ]-1 and F-1 visas issued to PRC Chinese by the American
Embassy doubled as compared with those issued during the same
months in 1984.
Whether these projections prove accurate depends to a large extent
on the policy decisions made by both the Chinese and American govern-
ments and on how they are implemented. In late 1984 and early 1985,
the PRC government made two changes that should result in an
increase in the number of PRC students and scholars coming to the
United States: (1) In late 1984 China's State Council announced its
intention to send one-third more "people abroad to study at State
expense."8 (2) In January 1985 the State Council issued "Draft Regula-
tions on Self-Supported Study Abroad." These latter regulations signal
Beijing's encouragement to Chinese students and scholars to make pri-
vately sponsored arrangements to study abroad.9 The crucial questions
in terms of the effect on the number of PRC students and scholars in the
United States are how liberally these regulations will be implemented
by Chinese officials at various levels and how American immigration
authorities will respond.
Fields of Study
In general, PRC students and scholars come to the United States
seeking training in scientific and technical fields. Over two-thirds of
them have been in such fields as computer science, engineering, health
sciences, life sciences, mathematics, and physical sciences (Tables 3-7
and 3-8~.
This pattern represents a continuation of the pre-1950 era in some
ways and a departure in others (see Table A-2. Then, as now, few
Chinese studied agriculture and many studied engineering. In other
areas the pattern was not repeated. Before 1950 a greater percentage of
students and scholars came to America to study the humanities, social
sciences, and business than was the case between 1979 and 1984. Dur-
ing the latter period, the percentage of students and scholars in the
physical and life sciences became much greater than before l9S0.
Parenthetically, many other countries also give limited attention to
agriculture in programs that send students to America. As Sirowy and
Inkeles document, agriculture consistently has been a low-priority field
of study among all foreign students in the United States.~° This pattern
presumably reflects the usual bureaucratic weakness of agricultural
OCR for page 38
38
A RELATIONSHIP RESTORED
TABLE 3-7 Percentage Distribution of PRC F-1 Visa
Holders by Intended Field of Study in United States,
1983
Intended Field of
Study in U.S.
Agriculture
American studies
Architecture
Business management
Computer science
Education
Engineering
English as a second language (ESL)
Health sciences
Humanities
Law
Library and archival science
Life sciences
Mathematics
Physical sciences
Social sciences
Other
Total
N=
F-1 Visa Holders
1
9
13
3
23
1
4
IS
s
s
14
4
2
100
(91 l)a
NOTE: The symbol `'—" indicates a value less than 0.5 percent.
aPercentage of missing data excluded from total is 4 percent.
SOURCE: Records of visas issued in 1983.
ministries in the Third World, the low status of agriculture among
urban intellectuals, and the fact that foreigners generally come to the
United States looking for advanced knowledge not normally associated
with agriculture. The seemingly lower priority for agriculture may also
reflect the fact that American agriculture is energy- and capital-
intensive and that much American agricultural training goes on in the
Third World itself.
Considerable overlap exists in the fields studied by F-1 and ]-1 visa
holders, but there are important differences as well (Tables 3-7 and 3-
8~. The holders of F-1 visas (generally privately sponsored students)
were more likely to study business management, computer science, and
the humanities than were ]-1 visa holders. ]-ls, in contrast, have more
often studied the physical and health sciences. These patterns remained
constant for ]-ls from 1979 through 1984 (Table 3-8~. Despite shifts in
Chinese policy pronouncements promoting the importance of applied
science, agriculture, management, and law, there was only a slight
OCR for page 39
CHARACTERISTICS OF EXCHANGE PARTICIPANTS
39
TABLE 3-8 Percentage Distribution of PRC ]-1 Students and Scholars
by Field of Study, 1979 Through 1984
Field of Study
Agriculture
American studies
Architecture
Business management
Computer science
Education
Engineering
English as a second language
(ESL)
Health sciences
Humanities
Law
Library and archival science
Life sciences
Mathematics
Physical sciences
Social sciences
Other
Total
N=
1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984
3 4 2 3 4 5
1 1 1
5 4 4
30
l
2 2
4 4 4
2 2 2 2 2
31 31 29 27 29
1
10 11 11 10 11
2 2 3 3 3
1 1
9
6
8
s
29 25
4 3
2 3 3 2 2
100 100 100 100 100 100
(1,000) (2,714) (5,565) (6,971) (7,740) (2,277)
NOTES: The symbol "—" indicates a value less than 0.5 percent. Percentage of missing
data is less than 1 percent for all years.
SOURCE: USIA data tape.
5
24 24 25
9 10
4 4
1
9
4
22
4 4
6
increase in the number of students and scholars in those fields who came
to the United States from 1979 to 1984. This stability may signal, in
part, the difficulty of implementing personnel policies that shift priori-
ties.
Different categories of ]-1 visa holders (e.g., student, trainee,
teacher, research scholar) tended to be concentrated in particular fields
and programs (see Table A-61. Although the two largest categories
~ o O
students and research scholars had similar distributions, more
research scholars than students studied engineering and health sciences,
while the opposite was true in the physical sciences. Each of the other
categories of J-ls had a distinctive profile. Trainees tended to be spon-
sored by an American business or foundation for a specific training
program, most commonly in agriculture and engineering. Teachers
taught at a level other than college; many studied education and the
humanities (including English), as well as engineering. Professors were
concentrated in engineering, health sciences, and physical sciences.
International visitors usually were sponsored by an agency of the United
OCR for page 40
40
A RELATIONSHIP RESTORED
Nations. The largest percentage of international visitors were in health
sciences, as were professional trainees.
In recent years, Chinese women from the PRC who have come to the
United States have been concentrated in American studies, library and
archival science, health sciences, education, English as a second lan-
guage (ESL), and the humanities (see Table Add. Conversely, relatively
few female PRC students and scholars were studying engineering,
mathematics, and computer and information science. Virtually the
same pattern of field distribution was evident among all women receiv-
ing graduate degrees in the United States during academic year 1981-
1982. 12
P e r s o n a l A t t r i B u t e s : G e o g r a p h i c V a r i a t i o n
The majority of the PRC students and scholars who have come to the
United States since 1978 are from a few areas of China, principally the
cosmopolitan areas along the coast (Table 3-9~. This pattern of concen-
tration is similar to that of the pre-1950 era (see Table A-1. Of those
who applied for F-1 visas in 1983, 75 percent listed Shanghai, Beijing,
and Guangdong Province as their current address. Seventy-one percent
of these students were born in those three localities.
This concentration may reflect several factors. Each of these places is
the site of centrally run "key" educational institutions and government
bureaucracies, and the populations tend to have higher incomes, higher
average education levels, and longer histories of interaction with the
West. In 1983, Beijing, Guangdong (in which the city of Guangzhou is
located), and Shanghai were the only places in China with American
consular officials in residence. Proximity to the embassy or consulates
may also have been a factor: persons making private arrangements
would be more likely to be able to file a visa application the closer their
residence was to the American Embassy or consulate.
The geographic concentration of ]-ls is only slightly less pronounced.
Fifty-one percent listed Shanghai or Beijing as their current address in
1983. Trailing far behind in percentages of ]-ls were provinces with
cities (shown in parentheses) that traditionally have been very impor-
tant economic and administrative centers: Guangdong (Guangzhou),
Hubei (Wuhan), Jiangsu (Nanjing), and Sichuan (Chongqing and
Chengdu). Each of these provinces contributed 5 percent of the ]-ls in
1983. This pattern reflects the concentration of state educational, scien-
tific, bureaucratic, and economic entities in these localities and the
Officially sponsored character of most ]-ls.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF EXCHANGE PARTICIPANTS
TABLE 3-19 Percentage Distribution of Funds Spent on PRC ]-1
Students, by Source of Funds, 1979 Through 1983
51
Source of
Funds
Chinese government
Personal funds
U.S. government
U.S. university
U.S. foundation
U.S. corporation
International organization 0
Other 14 10 6
Total 100 100 100
NOTE: The symbol "—" indicates a value less than 0.5 percent. Figures have been rounded
to the nearest percent.
SOURCE: USIA data tape.
would affect the totals contributed by the eight financial sources listed
in Table 3-15. But it can be said that including such outlays would not
materially increase the figures for the Chinese government's expendi-
tures; the personal funds category would jump dramatically; and the
U.S. university total would rise moclerately.
The Chinese government has provided no official estimates of how
much it believes it has spent to support officially sponsored students and
scholars in the United States. Chinese estimates do exist for the cost of
foreign study in general, although they are not detailed enough to per-
1979 1980 1981
-
57 30 20
5
2 5
21 48
1982 1983
20 30
6
3 2
62 53
6
s
62
1
7
100 100
TABLE 3-20 Percentage Distribution of Funds Spent on PRC J-1
Research Scholars, by Source of Funds, 1979 Through 1983
Source of
Funds
Chinese government
Personal funds
U.S. government
U.S. university
U.S. foundation
U.S. corporation
International organization 2
Other
Total
NOTE: The symbol "—" indicates a value less than 0.5 percent. Figures have been rounded
to the nearest percent.
SOURCE: USIA data tape.
1979
64
2
1
19
3
o
1980 1981 1982 1983
38
5
6
38
51 44 41
4 4
6 5
30 36
3
4
7
37
2
o
2
8
100 100 100
1 1 1
9 6 7 8
100 100
OCR for page 52
52
A RELATIONSHIP RESTORED
mit in-depth analysis. In November 1984 Beijing announced that, "in
the past six years, China has spent 290 million ynan ($116 million) to
send 26,000 students to study in more than 60 countries. In addition,
7,000 have gone abroad at their own expense."20
Multivariate analysis (see Appendix E) can be used to determine the
characteristics of J-1 visa holders who receive more or less money from
the Chinese government and American universities.2i The dependent
variable is the amount of money received, and the independent vari-
ables are the characteristics of the ]-1 visa holder. This analysis shows
that, all other factors being equal, American universities have preferred
to fund continuing students or scholars from China (Appendix E, Table
E-1), and had an apparent preference for funding females. ]-1 trainees
and international visitors are least likely to receive funding at American
universities, and ]-1 students are the most likely.
Field of study also influenced funding. Students and scholars in the
life and physical sciences tended to receive more money from American
universities; lesser amounts, in descending order, went to health sci-
ences, mathematics, law, and social sciences. Fields that appear to have
had a negative impact on the amount received from American universi-
ties were architecture, agriculture, computer science, and engineering.
In contrast, the Chinese government basically supports those persons
not as likely to be supported by American universities—more teachers
and research scholars (Appendix E, Table Ebb. Finally, the Chinese
government funded more students and scholars in engineering, archi-
tecture, computer science, agriculture, library science, and humanities,
in descending order, and was less likely to fund those in law and Ameri-
can studies.
In what context should American support for PRC Chinese students
and scholars be viewed? First, U.S. universities generally pick up about
half of the total cost of foreign ]-1 visa holders, whereas foreign govern-
ments usually pay less than 15 percent of these costs. As shown in Tables
3-19 and 3-20, the Chinese government pays more than 15 percent for
their J-1 visa holders. Second, the academic performance of Chinese
students and scholars compares favorably to both foreign and domestic
students (see Chapter 5~. Their ability to compete successfully for finan-
cial assistance not only speaks well for them, but their efforts also enrich
the intellectual climate in American academe. Third, many of the prob-
lems under investigation by students and scholars from China are
important to American research objectives. In one sense, Chinese sup-
port for their students and scholars are subsidies to U.S. programs.
Finally, the U.S. government has defined it to be in the national interest
that China's modernization effort succeed. Since direct federal develop-
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CHARACTERISTICS OF EXCHANGE PARTICIPANTS
S3
ment assistance to China is not yet available, this educational relation-
ship is the most direct contribution, aside from commercial transac-
tions, that the United States can make to China's modernization.
The American educational community has been particularly con-
cerned about four financial issues: (1) the adequacy of stipends pro-
vided by the Chinese government to its officially sponsored students and
scholars; (2) the fact that many PRC officially sponsored students and
scholars have had to remit a portion of their U.S. stipends and/or pay
back their salary and travel advances to their home "unit" (the kickback
issue); (3) the pressure applied by the Chinese government on its stu-
dents and scholars to secure American support for their research and
study in the United States; and (4) the frequency with which PRC
students and scholars fail to purchase health insurance. Each of these
areas is discussed in detail in Chapter 5, which deals with the role of
American universities in the academic exchanges.
OVERVIEW OF AMERICAN STUDENTS AND SCHOLARS
IN CHINA, 1979 - 1984
Numbers of American Students and Scholars
There is considerably less information about Americans who went to
China from 1979 through 1984 than there is for PRC Chinese who came
to the United States. The Chinese are in the best position to count
Americans traveling to China, because visitors must first obtain visas
from the Chinese. In practice, however, these Chinese statistics pose
several problems, one of which is that an unknown number of Ameri-
can scholars travel to China on tourist visas and then undertake aca-
demic work while they are in China.
According to general information provided by the Chinese Ministry
of Education (MOE), the number of Americans going to China for
academic purposes grew rapidly from 1979 through 1983, although the
total is much smaller than the number of Chinese coming to the United
States for academic purposes. These figures do not indicate how many
different individuals have traveled to China, since some stay for more
than one year or across calendar years, and many have made multiple
visits. If the repeat visitors constitute 10 to 20 percent of the total
provided by the Chinese (Table 3-21), approximately 2,900 to 3,300
American students and scholars would have traveled to China for what
the Chinese government considers academic purposes.
U.S. citizens actually taking courses at Chinese institutions of higher
learning constitute only a modest percentage of total foreign enrollment
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A RELATIONSHIP RESTORED
TABLE 3-21 American Students and Scholars Traveling to the PRC,
by Category, 1979 Through 1983
Category
of Scholar 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983
Scholars sent by CSCPRC 33 44 24 25 27
Fulbright scholars O O O 10 0
Students sent by CSCPRC 29 10 21 14 10
Intercollegiate 36 179 183 200 about
200
Short-term 0 0 400 800 1,200
English teachers 0 0 0 0 200
Total 98 233 628 1~049 about
1,600
NOTE: This table, provided by the Embassy of the PRC, obviously is missing data—for
correct figures on Fulbright scholars and CSCPRC students and scholars, see Tables 4-1
and A-ll and Chapter 4 in this report. For more recent aggregate figures, see Beijing
Review, No. 31 (Aug. 5, 1985), pp. 13-14, which reports, "Some 3,500 American students
[and scholars?] have come to China since 1979."
SOURCE: Embassy of the People's Republic of China.
in China. In late 1984, the MOE announced that there were 2,500
"foreign students for regular courses."22 The number of such American
students implied in Table 3-21 (for 1983) is only about 12 percent of this
number (if one counts the categories of "Intercollegiate" and "Students
sent by CSCPRC"~. In "short-term" classes, which the Chinese say "are
mainly in the Chinese language,"23 the percentage of Americans is
larger. In the MOE report of late 1984 cited above, then-Minister of
Education He Dongchang said that there were 4,000 "foreign students
for short-term studies...."24 According to the Chinese figures in Table
3-21, therefore, Americans appear to constitute a significant percentage
of the foreigners in China for short-term study.
From 1981 through 1983 (see Table 3-21), between two-thirds and
three-quarters of the American students and scholars who went to
China were categorized as "short-term." This figure includes many
American academics who have gone to China to lecture and teach (e. g.,
English teachers). In 1984 Li Tao, then director of the Foreign Affairs
Bureau of China's MOE, underscored this point when he reportedly
said, "Since 1979 China has invited hundreds of U.S. experts, most of
them teachers of English, to lecture for one or two years in colleges."25
In that same report, Li Tao also emphasized a critical dimension of the
exchanges from the Chinese perspective—the role of the many Ameri-
can scientists who have gone to the PRC to lecture for short periods and
contribute to the development of the natural sciences in China.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF EXCHANGE PARTICIPANTS
55
The disparity between the number of Americans going to China and
that of Chinese coming to the United States is characteristic of Ameri-
ca's exchange relationships with developing societies. It also reflects
global patterns. For example, in academic year 1981-1982, a total of
30,552 American students were studying abroad. In the same academic
year, there were 326,299 foreign students in the United States.26 Sirowy
and Inkeles make an important point concerning this global imbalance
in exchanges, noting that in 1973, Asian nations sent 40.9 percent of all
students who went abroad and received only 13.4 percent of the global
total of foreign students. Conversely, North American nations sent 12.1
percent of all students going abroad and received 33.2 percent of the
world total.27
Fields of Study
The patterns of study in Sino-American exchange are like those
Sirowy and Inkeles observed worldwide: students from the Third World
tend to focus on pure and applied science, while those from economi-
cally advanced nations are more often concentrated in the liberal arts
disciplines.28
The field distribution displayed in Table 3-22 is based on reports from
30 American universities with Asian studies programs. The numbers
should not be viewed in absolute terms, as they are only a small sample
of American scholars. Nonetheless, they provide a rough approximation
of the distribution of areas of interest among Americans who go to
China for research. Predictably, the social sciences and humanities
dominate, with approximately two-thirds of the researchers. Agricul-
ture and engineering were the next most popular fields, with only a few
scholars in each of the other categories. Of the American graduate
students and faculty in Chinese studies who conducted or planned to
conduct a month or more of research in the PRC from 1978-1979
through 1984-1985 (see Table 3-23), more than 50 percent were in
history and literature, with an additional 17 percent in political science/
international relations.
PRINCIPAL FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
Six broad conclusions emerge from this statistical characterization of
Sino-American exchange. First, the academic relationship between the
two countries from 1979 through 1984 has been shaped very consider-
ably by a developing country establishing academic ties with an eco-
nomically and technologically advanced country. The fields of study of
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56
A RELATIONSHIP RESTORED
TABLE 3-22 Percentage Distribution of American Graduate Students
and Faculty in All Fields Who Conducted or Planned to Conduct One
Month or More of Research in the PRC, by Field, 1978-1979 Through
1983-1984
Field of Study
Agriculture
American studies
Architecture
Business management
Computer and information sciences
Education
Engineering
Health sciences
Humanities
Law
Library and archival sciences
Life sciences
Mathematics
Physical sciences
Social sciences
Total
N=
Percent
6
2
3
2
2
1
7
3
26
1
3
3
4
38
100
(392)
NOTE: The symbol "—" indicates a value less than 0.5 percent.
SOURCE: Questionnaire responses from Asian studies departments at 30 universities.
Respondents were asked to estimate, "How many graduate students and scholars at your
university outside of China studies have conducted research for one month or more in the
PRC from academic year 1978-1979 through academic year 1983-1984?" Added to these
data were figures, estimated by the same respondents, for students and scholars in China
studies fields.
TABLE 3-23 Percentage Distribution of American Chinese Studies
Graduate Students and Faculty Conducting or Planning One Month or
More of Research in the PRC, by Field, 1978-1979 Through 1984-1985
Field of Study
Anthropology
Art history
Economics
History
Linguistics
Literature
Political science/international relations
Sociology
Total
Percent
7
s
6
28
s
25
17
6
100
(199)
N=
NOTE: Figures for 1984-1985 are those who planned to conduct research at time of survey.
SOURCE: Questionnaire responses from Asian studies departments at 30 universities.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF EXCHANGE PARTICIPANTS
57
the PRC Chinese in America, the uneven flow of students and scholars
between China and the United States, the low priority accorded the
study of agriculture for the Chinese, and Americans' interest in pursu-
ing work in the humanities and social sciences in China are all charac-
teristic of the academic relations between Third World countries and
the United States. Although the Sino-American academic relationship
has its own distinctive character, the broader similarities should not be
overlooked or incorrectly ascribed to the PRC's political and social sys-
tem.
Second, the clear imbalance in the flow of students and scholars
moving between China and the United States is likely to grow in the
years ahead. Growth processes already under way, and decisions made
by the PRC government in late 1984 and early 1985 to send more
students and scholars abroad will both contribute to this trend. Ameri-
cans should not permit this imbalance to distract them from the more
important issue of quality. Rather, they should concentrate on improv-
ing the quality of the experience that U.S. students and scholars have in
China, and on making it possible for a broader range of Americans to go
to China for long-term study and research. Access for both Americans in
China and Chinese in the United States are discussed later, but it should
be emphasized here that, over time, there will be an erosion of goodwill
if Americans come to perceive a lack of responsiveness on the part of the
Chinese.
Third, although it is not known how many PRC students and scholars
return to China, the personal characteristics of the F-1 students suggest
that many will seek to remain in the United States. The Chinese govern-
ment's recent decision to permit more "self-supported" students to go
abroad signals; in the authors' view, its willingness to accept this.
Fourth, American universities (themselves drawing funds from many
sources) have been the single largest category of financial supporters of
PRC students and scholars in the United States, contributing more than
the Chinese government itself. American universities have funded the
Chinese for several reasons, among them: the quality and competitive
performance of PRC students (see Chapter 5), the comparative ease
with which the Chinese have been absorbed into American university
communities, and the important teaching and research roles played by
PRC Chinese students in many graduate science programs.
Fifth, tine' geographic and institutional origin in China of PRC stu-
dents and scholars coming to the United States raises questions about
China's development strategy and U.S. involvement with it. Most Chi-
nese who study in the United States are from three coastal areas and a
small number of "key" schools. Although the implications of this are by
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58
A RELATIONSHIP RESTORED
no means self-evident, China's unity has long been dependent on the
prevention of gross disparities between different regions of the country.
Should such an imbalance develop and assume politically significant
forms, the United States could become associated with the contested
development strategy. This suggests that American institutions, in
establishing ties with their Chinese counterparts, might profitably con-
sider geographic and institutional diversification in the PRC. Indeed,
the eagerness with which inland provinces now are seeking external ties
may represent new opportunities for some American scholars and insti-
tutions.
Sixth, if American policy is aimed at training a Chinese generation
that wouIc] be in place for a long time to come, the declining average
age of PRC ]-ls coming to the United States is significant. Because more
and younger Chinese are coming to the United States, the effects of the
present program—whatever they may be—will endure.
NOTES
1. The figure 14,000 comes from Guo-cang Huan, "Taiwan: A View from Beijing,"
Foreign Affairs (Summer 1985), p. 1074.
The findings in this report are based upon both quantitative and qualitative infor-
mation from program files, specific data sets described below, questionnaires, tele-
phone and personal interviews, commissioned papers, and published sources. Each
source has strengths and weaknesses, but together they provide a comprehensive view
of Sino-American scholarly exchange. The details of the principal sources are
described below. (Before proceeding further, the reader is advised to review the terms
in the Glossary.)
Records of Visas Issued to PRC Students and Scholars in 1983. The PRC persons of
interest in this study fall into a number of categories. The largest proportion of them
are students; next are research scholars, and the remainder are professors, trainees,
teachers, or international visitors. Because all such persons must be issued visas from
the American Embassy or consulates in China before they may travel to the United
States, a survey of the application forms for Chinese citizens issued visas yields a
complete count of all categories of persons traveling for scholarly reasons. The records
of all visas issued during 1983 are stored at the American Embassy in Beijing and at
the consulates in Shanghai and Guangzhou. Of the 4,391 F and J visas issued in 1983,
96 percent were located and hand-coded for this study. The names of individual
subjects were not included in the coding process.
An important strength of this information is that it covers both J-1 and F-1 visas. J-1
visas are issued to students, research scholars, teachers, trainees, and international
visitors. Persons issued J-1 visas are considered to possess a higher level of scholarship
and generally are subject to the "two-year rule" (see Glossary). In the PRC, these
individuals generally are considered to be "officially sponsored." F-1 visas are issued
only to students, and, for the most part, these individuals are supported by funds from
relatives or personal sources. The Chinese generally refer to these persons as "self-
paying" or "privately sponsored" (see Glossary), though the overlap between Ameri-
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CHARACTERISTICS OF EXCHANGE PARTICIPANTS
59
can visa categories and Chinese designations is imperfect. Therefore, it is possible to
compare the attributes and activities of the Chinese in the two visa categories of
interest in this study. A weakness of the visa data is that they are available only for
1983, since some earlier data were destroyed according to regulation, making it
impossible to analyze trends over time. Because this type of information is so valuable,
the Committee on Scholarly Communication with the People's Republic of China
(CSCPRC) will continue to compile these data for subsequent years. Some time lag is
inevitable since records for one year cannot be examined until the following calendar
year.
IAP-66 Data Concerning J-1 Students and Scholars. The United States Information
Agency (USIA) routinely collects information on the students and scholars who
receive J-1 visas. This information is recorded on a form called the IAP-66, which is
filled out annually by sponsors of these visa holders. For this study, 26,301 records
from 1979 into 1984 were analyzed.
The principal strength of the USIA data is their existence over a period of several
years, which permits analysis of trends. Also, they provide valuable information
about the financial support provided by different types of sponsors. Unfortunately,
fewer items of information are available for this data set than for the 1983 visa data.
Moreover, F visa holders (all of whom are students and the great majority of whom
are in the United States under private arrangements) are not included.
Questionnaires. In 1984, a questionnaire was sent to 391 American universities and
colleges that were identified as having five or more Chinese students and scholars. Of
these questionnaires, about 60 percent were returned; 55 percent of the total sent out
were usable. The questionnaire provided information about how universities handle
students from the PRC, including admissions policies, student adjustment, problems
in health and housing, and financing. (See Appendix B for a complete list of respond-
ing institutions.)
To obtain information about American students and scholars traveling to China,
another survey was sent in mid-1984 to 64 universities with Asian studies programs;
50 percent of these questionnaires were returned, a marginal response rate that limits
the ability to generalize. However, this is one of the few sources available on Ameri-
cans visiting China for scholarly purposes. These questionnaires were analyzed by
hand, and many interesting qualitative comments were obtained. (See Appendix C
for a complete list of responding programs.)
Other Sources of Information. To compare various programs that send students and
scholars to China for study and research, telephone interviews were conducted with
11 individuals known to have received grants to study or to undertake research in
China from the CSCPRC and from other programs. Additionally, onsite interviews
were conducted with administrators and faculty at seven American universities and
colleges (Appalachian State University, University of California at Berkeley, Hofstra
University, University of Minnesota, Oberlin College, University of Pittsburgh, and
Stanford University) to compile case studies on institutional experiences with U.S.-
China exchanges. These schools were selected by the study steering committee, which
sought to include a variety of types of institutions. Also, limited formal and informal
discussions were held with representatives of the Chinese Embassy in Washington,
representatives of China's Ministry of Education (MOE), and officials of the Chinese
Academy of Sciences.
2. Table 3-2 shows that 12,222 "new" arrivals in the J-1 category came to the United
States in the 1979-1983 period. This indicates that the double-counting problem is not
great, because the total of 12,514 J-1 visas issued (in Table 3-1) is only slightly higher
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A RELATIONSHIP RESTORED
than the figure of 12,222 for "new arrivals" in Table 3-2. If it is assumed that a person
who interrupts his or her stay in the United States with a trip back to China is counted
as a "continuing" student or scholar upon return to the United States, then most
Chinese students and scholars appear to have stayed in the United States for the full
duration of their studies, during the period under study. Furthermore, if it is assumed
that the double-counting problem is no more severe among privately sponsored stu-
dents (the 7,358 F-ls in Table 3-1) than for J-ls, this would mean that a total of about
19,000 Chinese students and scholars have come to study in the United States during
the 1979-1983 period. Note, however, as time progresses, the double-counting prob-
lem is expected to become more severe, since more Chinese may have the opportunity
to come to the United States for a second time.
3. Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), Apr. 24, 1984, p. B12, from Xinhua:
"The ministry [of Education] sent the first group of 52 visiting scholars to the United
States on December 26, 1978.... China has since sent 8,900 government-financed
students to the United States, 3,600 of whom have graduated and returned. Most of
the remaining 5,300 are visiting scholars and post-graduates. Another 4,000 Chinese
students are studying in the United States at their own expense." This report, however,
cannot be usefully assessed because the period covered by the figures is not precisely
specified. As discussed later in this chapter, there appear to be serious gaps in China's
statistical collection system.
4. Interview, May 23, 1984, Washington, D. C.
5. Mary Ellen Adams, Alfred C. Julian, and Krista Van Laan, eds., Open Doors: 1983/
84, Report on International Educational Exchange (New York: Institute of Interna-
tional Education, 1984), p. 18; and Open Doors: 1979/80 (New York: IIE, 1980).
6. This is consistent with the earlier 1981 findings of Thomas Fingar and Linda A. Reed,
Survey Summary: Students and Scholars from the People s Republic of China in the
United States, August 1981 (Washington, D.C.: U.S.-China Education Clearing
House, 1981), pp. 5 and 8 (hereafter referred to as Survey Summary, 1981).
7. IIE News Release, Sept. 5, 1984.
8. "China Will Send More Students Overseas," China Daily, Nov. 30, 1984.
9. FBIS, Jan. 15, 1985, pp. K12-K14, from Xinhua.
10. Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "University-Level Student Exchanges: The U.S. Role
in Global Perspective," in Elinor G. Barber, ea., Foreign Student Flows: Their Signif-
icance for American Higher Education, Report on conference held at Spring Hill
Center, Wayzata, Minnesota, April 13-15, 1984 (New York: Institute of International
Education, 1985), pp. 60-61.
11. The seemingly low numbers of ]-1 visa holders who intend to study computer science
in the United States can be explained by the fact that the general category of "engi-
neering" includes several computer-related subfields.
12. According to National Center for Education Statistics material, supplied by Tom
Snyder.
13. John S. Aird, "The Preliminary Results of China's 1982 Census," The China Quar-
terly, No. 96 (December 1983), pp. 616-617.
14. When applying for an F-1 visa, a document called the "Student Data Form" is
required to be completed. This document, which requests information on educational
background, was not available for J-ls, and the educational background information
frequently was missing for F-ls.
15. CAS released two (somewhat contradictory) figures which indicate that the Academy
had sent well in excess of 3,000 persons abroad throughout the world by mid-1984 (see
Joint Publications Research Service thereafter referred to as JPRS], CPS-84-090, Dec.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF EXCHANGE PARTICIPANTS
61
2O, 1984, P. S & M [Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs], pp. 51-52, from
Guangming Riboo; also JPRS, CPS-84-090, Dec. 20, 1984, P. S & M, pp. 69-70, from
Xinhua); CAS has provided CSCPRC staff with moderately detailed figures on
scholars sent to the United States.
16. Twenty-nine percent of all foreign students in the United States in academic year
1983-1984 were female. IIE News Release, Sept. 5, 1984.
17. These estimates were computed based on a projected total number of F-ls and multi-
plied by the average annual amount spent per year per J-1. However, this calculus
assumes that J-ls and F-ls cost the same on average (see Table A-10 for methods of
calculation).
18. It was possible to determine the amount of money that a student or scholar received
from different sources to cover tuition and room and board (but not air tickets). This
information was available for about 80 percent of the J-ls from 1979 through 1983. It
was assumed that this group is representative of all J-1 visa holders.
19. Fingar and Reed, Survey Summary, 1981, p. 23.
20. China Daily, Nov. 30, 1984.
21. Ordinary least-squares regression analysis was used, and variables that were signifi-
cant to at least the .05 level of probability were included in the results.
22. FBIS, Dec. 13, 1984, p. K17, from Xinhua.
23. FBIS, Apr. 24, 1984, p. B12, from Xinhua.
24. FBIS, Dec. 13, 1984, p. K17, from Xinhua.
25. FBIS, Apr. 24, 1984, p. B12, from Xinhua.
26. Open Doors, 1982/83, pp. 1 and 86.
27. Sirowy and Inkeles, in Foreign Student Flows, pp. 36-37.
28. Ibid., p. 41.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
visa holders
