NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
2101 Constitution Ave., N.W. Washington, D.C. 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approvedby the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose membersare drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences,the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosenfor their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors accordingto procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting ofmembers of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academyof Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuatingsociety of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineeringresearch, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technologyand to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of thecharter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has amandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientificand technical matters. Dr. Bruce Alberts is president of the NationalAcademy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, underthe charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organizationof outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administrationand in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academyof Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government.The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programsaimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research,and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. RobertM. White is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the NationalAcademy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members ofappropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertainingto the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibilitygiven to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charterto be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative,to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr.Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academyof Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science andtechnology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge andadvising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with generalpolicies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principaloperating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and theNational Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government,the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Councilis administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine.Dr. Bruce Alberts and Dr. Robert M. White are chairman and vice chairman,respectively, of the National Research Council.
The project was supported by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,contract #68-W4-0044.
Printed in the United States of America
COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH AND PEER REVIEW IN EPA
PAUL G. RISSER,(Chair),
Miami University, Oxford, Ohio
BRADEN R. ALLENBY,
AT&T Bell Laboratories, Princeton, New Jersey
JULIAN B. ANDELMAN,
University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
ANDERS W. ANDREN,
University of Wisconsin, Madison
JOHN C. BAILAR III,
McGill University Faculty of Medicine, Montreal, Canada
JUDY A. BEAN,
University of Miami Medical School, Florida
EULA BINGHAM,
University of Cincinnati, Ohio
DAVID S. C. CHU,
RAND, Washington, D.C.
RALPH J. CICERONE,
University of California, Irvine
ELLIS B. COWLING,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh
WALTER F. DABBERDT,
National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado
ROLF HARTUNG,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
ALAN J. KRUPNICK,
Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C.
MORTON LIPPMANN,
New York University Medical School, Tuxedo
RAYMOND C. LOEHR,
University of Texas, Austin
PAMELA A. MATSON,
University of California, Berkeley
JUDITH MCDOWELL,
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, Massachusetts
JERRY M. MELILLO,
Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts
DAVID W. MILLER,
Geraghty and Miller, Inc., Plainview, New York
DAVID L. MORRISON,
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, D.C.
GEOFFREY PLACE(retired; formerly Procter & Gamble),
Hilton Head, South Carolina
DONALD W. PRITCHARD
(emeritus; State University of New York at Stony Brook), SevernaPark, Maryland
HOWARD E. SIMMONS, JR.(retired; formerly duPont),
Wilmington, Delaware
BAILUS WALKER, JR.,
Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, D.C.
Project Staff
JAMES J. REISA,Principal Staff Officer
RAYMOND A. WASSEL,Senior Staff Officer
RUTH P. DANOFF,Senior Project Assistant
LORA K. TAYLOR,Project Assistant
BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY
PAUL G. RISSER,(Chair),
Miami University, Oxford, Ohio
MICHAEL J. BEAN,
Environmental Defense Fund, Washington, D.C.
EULA BINGHAM,
University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
EDWIN H. CLARK,
Clean Sites, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia
ALLAN H. CONNEY,
Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey
ELLIS COWLING,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
JOHN L. EMMERSON,
Eli Lilly & Company, Greenfield, Indiana
ROBERT C. FORNEY,
Unionville, Pennsylvania
ROBERT A. FROSCH,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
KAI LEE,
Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts
JANE LUBCHENCO,
Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
GORDON ORIANS,
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
FRANK PARKER,
Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
GEOFFREY PLACE,
Hilton Head, South Carolina
DAVID P. RALL,
Washington, D.C.
LESLIE A. REAL,
Indiana University,Bloomington, Indiana
KRISTIN SHRADER-FRECHETTE,
University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
BURTON H. SINGER,
Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
MARGARET STRAND,
Eckert, Seamans, Cherin, & Mellot, Washington, D.C.
GERALD VAN BELLE,
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
BAILUS WALKER, JR.,
Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, D.C.
Staff Program Directors
JAMES J. REISA,Director
DAVID POLICANSKY,Associate Director and Program Director for Ecology and Natural Resources
CAROL MACZKA,Program Director for Toxicology and Risk Assessment
LEE PAULSON,Program Director for Information Systems and Statistics
RAYMOND WASSEL,Program Director for Environmental Sciences and Engineering
COMMISSION ON GEOSCIENCES, ENVIRONMENT, AND RESOURCES
M. GORDON WOLMAN( Chair),
The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
PATRICK R. ATKINS,
Aluminum Company of America, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
EDITH BROWN WEISS,
Georgetown University Law Center, Washington, D.C.
JAMES P. BRUCE,
Canadian Climate Program Board, Ottawa
WILLIAM L. FISHER,
The University of Texas, Austin, Texas
EDWARD A. FRIEMAN,
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California
GEORGE M. HORNBERGER,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
W. BARCLAY KAMB,
California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California
PERRY L. MCCARTY,
Stanford University, Stanford, California
S. GEORGE PHILANDER,
Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
RAYMOND A. PRICE,
Queen's University at Kingston, Ontario, Canada
THOMAS C. SCHELLING,
University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
ELLEN SILBERGELD,
Environmental Defense Fund, Washington, D.C.
STEVEN M. STANLEY,
The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
VICTORIA J. TSCHINKEL,
Landers and Parsons, Tallahassee, Florida
Staff
STEPHEN RATTIEN,Executive Director
STEPHEN D. PARKER,Associate Executive Director
MORGAN GOPNIK,Assistant Executive Director
JEANETTE SPOON,Administrative Officer
SANDRA FITZPATRICK,Administrative Associate
COMMISSION ON LIFE SCIENCES
THOMAS D. POLLARD,(Chair),
The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
BRUCE N. AMES,
University of California, Berkeley, California
JOHN C. BAILAR III,
McGill University Faculty of Medicine, Montreal, Canada
J. MICHAEL BISHOP,
University of California Medical Center, San Francisco, California
JOHN E. BURRIS,
Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts
MICHAEL T. CLEGG,
University of California, Riverside, California
GLENN A. CROSBY,
Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
MARIAN E. KOSHLAND,
University of California, Berkeley, California
RICHARD E. LENSKI,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
EMIL A. PFITZER,
Hoffman La Roche, Inc., Nutley, New Jersey
MALCOLM C. PIKE,
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
HENRY C. PITOT III,
University of Wisconsin, Madison
JONATHAN M. SAMET,
The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
HAROLD M. SCHMECK, JR.,
North Chatam, Massachusetts
CARLA J. SHATZ,
University of California, Berkeley, California
SUSAN S. TAYLOR,
University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California
P. ROY VAGELOS,
Merck & Company, Inc., Whitehouse Station, New Jersey
JOHN L. VANDEBERG,
Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, San Antonio, Texas
PAUL GILMAN,Executive Director