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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
When the Interstate Highway Act was passed in 1966, few
could envision the dramatic impact that the highway
system would have on the economic and social structure of-
Americ~n society. Because of the easy access created by
highways, many businesses and essential services relo-
cated from the inner cities to the outlying suburbs. How-
ever, public transportation systems have not kept pace
with changing land use patterns and, as a result, many of
the transportation disadvantaged now find fewer essen-
tial destinations available to them.
The lack of personal mobility has economic, social and
human costs, such as higher unemployment, reduced tax
revenue, greater welfare and medical costs, and limited
social potential. This research identified 11 transporta-
tion practices that help reduce such costs and provide
economic benefits to both the riders and the larger com-
munity.
~ NTRODUCTION
ttin many metropolitan
areas, jobs in the cities are
no longer around the
corner. Jobs are over the
horizon."
MarkAlan Hughes
Public/Private Ventures
The transportation disadvantaged are those people whose
range of travel alternatives is limited, especially in the
availability of easy-to-use and inexpensive options for
trip-making. Factors influencing this immobility are:
1. ACCESS TO AUTOMOBILES
In 1990, 9.2% of American households did not have an
automobile. Almost half of those without an automo-
bile are persons 66 years or older, and ofthese, 81% are
women.
2. DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS:
income: Individuals with incomes below $10,000
make about one trip per day less than individuals with
incomes over $40,000 per year.
disabilities: Non-disabled persons make over 50%
more trips than persons with disabilities.
gender: 23% of fi~-time working mothers and almost
60% of part-time working mothers have non-traditional
work hours. This reduces women's ability to join
carpools or find appropriately-scheduled transit options.
WHO ARE THE
TRANSPORTATION
D' SADVANTAG ED?
'The largest groups of the
transportation disadvan-
taged are those over 65
and those with a physical
or mental handicap."
Sandra Rosenbloom
University of Arizona
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ethnicity: Nearly 40% of central city African-American
households were without access to an automobile, com
Dur/ng the past 40 years
nearly2 out of 3 new jobs pared to fewer than one out of five white central city
have been created in the households.
suburbs of metropolitan education: A change in education produces a greater
areas: "If you cannot afford overall effect on higher trip rates than a change in
a car, you can't get to
work." Income, with the more educated taking more trips.
Director of an economic
deve/opmentprogramin 3. AVAILABILITY OF PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION
the Kentucky Highlands. Almost four in ten American households do not have
public transportation available within two miles.
VEHICLE OWNERSHIP AND POVERTY LEVELS
(PERSONS 16 AND OLDER)
| HOUSEHOLD VEHICLE OWNERSHIP
ONE OR MORE
VEHICLES NO VEHICLES
Below Poverty | 76. 1% ~23.9%
Near Poverty 8 1. 1 % 1 8.9%
Above Poverty 97.6% 2.4Yo
BARRIERS TO It is widely believed that persons who are poor, disabled,
MOBILITY or elderly cannot participate fully in society without an
automobile or high quality, low-cost public transportation.
Some of the major reasons for these barriers to full par
ticipation are:
· Lack of access to job opportunities for inner-city resi
dents;
·. Need to improve basic services in the inner city to
reduce travel needs;
·. Deficient rural and small town transit services;
·. Inadequate funding to improve mobility for the trans
portation disadvantaged; and
·. Need for improved public safety to reduce fear of travel
by public transit.
2
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This research focused on transportation practices that
have successfully addressed immobility, particularly those
designed for better access to health care and to jobs. Six
regions of the country were chosen for in-depth case stud-
ies, highlighted in the accompanying sidebars. Rider
surveys and documentation from the case study sites form
the basis of a guide for economic analysis of the practices.
The filet research document contains an additional 63
practices, which are summarized in a compendium of
operational and community development strategies. The
eight key findings below are the result of this extensive
look at personal immobility.
1.
RETAINING BASIC PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION SERVICES IS
CRITICAL TO IMPROVING THE MOBILITY OF THE
TRANSPORTATION DISADVANTAGED.
In these days of declining fiends, it is important to recog-
nize the fundamental premise of availability which under-
pins this research; therefore, the first and most obvious
finding of this research is that public transportation must
be available if it is to be used to address immobility. A
case study of the AC Transit District in Oakland, Califor-
n~a concluded that urban bus service can be enormously
productive economically, and its curtailment, even in low-
patronage, off-peak hours, can create added travel costs
and income losses for riders that exceed by many times
the dollar savings to transit agencies from service reduc-
tions. Although AC Transit was able to balance its budget
by service reductions which saved $4.8 million, the eco-
nomic impact on riders was $48.1 million in lost income
and added travel time and expenses.
2. PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION PRACTICES DIRECTED AT
REDUCING PERSONAL IMMOBILITY ARE ECONOMICALLY
BENEFICIAL.
The full research document contains a Guide for Economic
Analysis which describes the five steps recommended to
perform an economic analysis of transit projects. This
analysis can be used to determine the economic value of a
proposed project that addresses immobility. The economic
KEY RESEARCH
FINDINGS
Public comments on AC
Transit's weekend cuts:
"No more Sunday concerts."
"Could not visit friend in
hospital..."
"Zero night life!"
"San Francisco is out for
recreation."
"Trapped at home."
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analysis can be used by policy makers in making informed
transit investment decisions by comparing the transit
benefits and costs of a specific proposed project. For pro-
posed projects where quantified benefits clearly outweigh
the costs, the economic analysis can be utilized to build
support for budgets that provide sufficient public transpor-
tation funding.
The following figure illustrates the five recommended steps
for economic analysis. In step 3, mobility benefits refer to
benefits from transit trips that would not be made without
the availability of transit. Efficiency benefits in step 4,
result from the shift oftrips from automobiles to transit,
which typically improves the efficiency, safety, and envi-
ronmental performance of the highway transportation
system.
RECOMMENDED STEPS FOR ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Step ~
DESCRIBE PROJECT CHARACTERISTICS AND COSTS
Step 2
SELECT ECONOMIC FEATURES,
UPDATE UNIT COSTS
1 ~
Step 3
DETERMINE PROJECT PATRONAGE,
IDENTIFY MOBILITY BENEFITS
Step 4
ESTIMATE EFFICIENCY BENEFITS OF PROJECT
Step 5
CALCULATE AND INTERPRET ECONOMIC INDICES
The table below depicts results of the economic analysis
developed for six of the practices studied in this research.
The high ratio of benefits to costs supports this finding
that practices directed at reducing personal mobility are
economically beneficial. The analysis further demon-
strates that the economic productivity of public transit is
not very dependent on the income levels served and could
greatly benefit the economy by further appropriate expan
· · -
slon in ow Income areas.
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THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS
-
Annual Annual
Benefits Costs
Case Study
PDRTA' Myrtle Beach
SEPTA Horsham Breeze
MDTAMetropass
MTA Immediate Needs
OATS, Missouri
Fremont travel training
AC Transit service cuts
a
$2,177
1,563
7,619
13,951
13,939
52
4,759
b
$79
213
1,580
5,400
6,010
27
48,100
Society benefits when individuals can access more parts of
society. The programs in these case studies also save
society money in ways that are not easily quantified
by helping to:
·: avoic] medical institutionalization of the indigent;
·: prevent crime by providing job training for employ-
ment and food for the hungry;
·: reduce the demand on more expensive and oversub-
scribed paratransit services;
·: provide an option to a costly ambulance ride for
medical care;
·: increase the purchasing power enjoyed by transit
riders with access to jobs or to broader market
choices; and
·: relieve other agencies funded by tax dollars of trans-
portation responsibilities and, thereby, increase their
productivity
If transit agencies could incorporate these benefits into
new matrices for evaluation, transit's true value to society
would be startlingly apparent.
Benefit/Cost
Ratio (a/b)
c
27.4
7.3
4.8
2.6
2.3
1.9
0.1
Net Annual
Benefits (a-b)
c
$2,098
1,350
6,039
8,551
7,929
25
(43,341)
TRANSIT CREATES ACCESS
TO JOBS
Southeastern Pennsylvania
Transportation Authority*
Horsham Breeze Shuttle meets
buses from downtown Philadel-
phia to connect to suburban
employment centers with major
employers, such as UPS and
Prudential. Extended hours of
service are paid for by employ-
ers and the county pays for
midday service.
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3. PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION AGENCIES THAT ARE ABLE TO
DEVELOP NEW ALLIANCES WITH NONTRADITIONAL PARTNERS
WILL HAVE THE BEST RESULTS WITH TRANSPORTATION
PRACTICES ADDRESSING WELFARE-TO-WORK, EMPLOYMENT
AND HEALTH CARE.
600 PARTNERS PROVIDE
ACCESS TO IMMEDIATE
NEEDS
The Metropolitan Trans-
portation Authority
underwrites both taxi
vouchers and bus tokens,
which are used by clients of
600 social service agencies in
Los Angeles. Clients in the
Immediate Needs Transpor-
tation Program use the
assistance for trips to food
banks and grocery stores,
medical appointments, job
training and job interviews,
and for emergencies.
It:
I.,.
..1
COORDINATION IS
CREATING MORE WITH
LESS
The Chesterfield County
Coordinating Council in
South Carolina is increasing
mobility for rural residents
by layering a fixed-route
system on dial-a-ride routes
and allowing adults to ride
school buses. The 43 member
agencies have also agreed to
share their vehicles.
The transit industry has been in partnership with state
and federal governments over the years to fund transpor-
tation services. However, almost all the operations spot-
lighted in the case studies were new services developed
with nontraditional partners, such as:
· social service agencies
· community-based~ organizations
·. volunteer groups
· businesses, and
· local governments.
Dramatic changes are occurring in the delivery of health
care and reform of the welfare system that directly impact
transit properties. These case studies identif y transit
operators that are ahead of the curve in meeting these
societal and political shims in priorities. By designing
services in conjunction with their nontraditional partners,
they have been able to respond effectively to these exter-
nal influences and meet the needs of the transportation
disadvantaged. Important elements of agreements with
nontraditional partners are:
·. a vested interest shared by all parties;
· a willingness to share control;
·. a climate of trust;
·. consensus on a common agenda;
· an ability to listen to the partner's needs and
respond flexibly; and
· an action orientation with scheduled, short-term
results.
4. OPPORTUNITIES EXIST FOR BLENDING A WIDE ARRAY OF
DIFFERENT HUMAN AND MONETARY RESOURCES TO ADDRESS
IMMOBILITY.
This finding is a byproduct of the partnerships discussed
above. These partnerships have expanded transit's re-
sources by providing new funding sources or alternative
OCR for page 7
methods of acimin~stering services. The result has been
additional services that increase mobility for the transpor-
tation disadvantaged. Collectively, the case study sites
have tapped funds from:
medical centers and HMOs
dialysis clinics
retirement housing
· . .
universities
chambers of commerce
businesses and employers
. .
alr 1nes
· . . ~
socla1 service agencies
school districts
rider voluntary contributions
group travel
local cash contributions
loans and lines of credit
foundation grants
Amtrak
cities' and counties' general funds
cities' federal Community Development
block grants
county congestion management agencies
city bond measures
city redevelopment funds
cities' federal Enterprise Community funds
state Medicaid transportation funds
state Departments of Mental Health
state Elderly and Handicapped Transportation
Assistance Programs
state Departments of Social Services
U.S. Area Agency on Aging
U.S. Dept. of Transportation
U.S. Dept. of Housing and Urban Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
U.S. Dept. of Commerce
Coordinating with others is another way to blend resources
in ways that may not require new finding. By sharing
resources, agencies can better use existing capacity of
vehicles; reduce liabilities; increase available expertise;
create staffing pools; and eliminate redundancy, thereby,
freeing up fiends.
5. PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION PRACTICES BUNDLED WITH
OTHER SUPPORT SERVICES MOST EFFECTIVELY ADDRESS
IMMOBILITY ISSUES RELATED TO WELFARE-TO-WORK,
EMPLOYMENT, AND HEALTH CARE.
Immobility is an indicator of other social issues that
typically cannot be addressed by transportation alone.
Although transportation is an essential component in
solving immobililv. it will not resolve the problem in and
a,
of itself, because the origins of immobility are entangled
in demographic, geographic and cultural causes as well.
Some programs are now being designed through colIabora-
tive planning with job training and placement organiza-
tions, transportation providers, comm~,nity-based organi-
zations, human services agencies, and regional planning
institutions. These programs include help for inner-city
residents in locating job openings, particularly in the
suburbs; commute routes targeted to connect inner-city
RIDERS INCREASE MOBILITY ¢S
THROUGH PEER TRAINING
.......
AC Transit District and the
Bay Area Rapid Transit
District funded group travel
training with peers as assis-
tants. Conducted by the City of
Fremont, California, the travel
training empowered persons
who are elderly or with
disabilities to shift from
paratransit to fixed routes for
some of their trips, saving both
the transit agencies and riders
money.
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PEOPLE WORK DAY AND
N IGHT SHOULDN T
TRANSIT?
Pee Dee Regional Transpor-
tation Authority runs a 24-
hour commute service Icing
residents in rural South
Carolina with entry-level jobs
in the tourist industry at
Myrtle Beach. Service operates
to meet day and night shifts
and is coordinated with the
Marion County Department of
Social Services.
TRANSIT +
ENTREPRENEUR=
MORE MOBILITY
The Metropolitan Trans-
portation Authority's buses
bring customers to the
Numero Uno supermarket in
South Central Los Angeles,
where they can shop and
return home with their
groceries on free shuttles
operated by the market. This
entrepreneurial service
complements the public
transit system and boosts
sales at the market.
residents to previously inaccessible employment locations;
and support services to mitigate demands created by a
commute to distant job locations, including extended child-
care arrangements, a guaranteed ride home in an emer-
gency, and conflict resolution with co-workers.
Transit stabs need a new set of skills and knowledge to
integrate socio-economic factors into their service planning
and deliverer. By bundling transportation solutions with
packages of support services, public transportation provid-
ers will attack the problem more comprehensively, with a
higher likelihood of success.
6. PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION AGENCIES CAN PROVIDE
LEADERSHIP IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT, THEREBY
REDUCING THE COSTS OF IMMOBILITY.
The suburbanization of jobs has followed the
suburbanization of residences. As of 1990, the suburbs
account for 60% of the metropolitan work force. Today,
just one-quarter of the American people live in central
cities, and the largest proportion of people half the popu-
lation live, work, and shop in urban areas outside the
central city. At the same time, poverty and disadvantage
are concentrated in the former central cities.
Transit agencies have responded with both operational
improvements and land-use changes designed to address
this jobs~ousing mismatch. Reverse commute routes
bring inner-city and rural residents to job-rich areas in
the suburbs and in the tourist industry. Auto ownership
may become more feasible when these employees have
work experience which allows them to advance to higher-
paying jobs. Whatever ill effects may occur for transit
ridership or road congestion, auto ownership under today's
land use patterns will definitely increase the personal
mobility ofthese workers. Thus, the reverse commutes will
have given these employees an opportunity for entry into
the personal mobility enjoyed by most Americans.
Two transit agencies spotlighted in these cases studies are
involved in long-term land use changes that can have a
more permanent impact on economic development. They
are developing services and activity centers around a
transit hub, positioning transit as part of a larger economic
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development strategy. However, although transit can have
an important role in economic development, it cannot
substitute for sound land use decisions.
7. TODAY S MOBILITY ISSUES, PARTICULARLY IN ACCESS TO
JOBS, DEMAND REGIONAL APPROACHES.
Another outgrowth of the jobs/housing mismatch dis-
cussed above is the need for transit agencies to enlarge
the sphere of influence used in their planning, perhaps
even beyond their own service areas Countv lines and
e, e ~ ~ ~
transit service area nounctar~es are artificial barriers for
people who need to cross them to get to the jobs and ser-
vices they need.
Oftentimes, a regional approach is part of a larger corpo-
rate strategy of mobility management. The definition of
mobility management is "an institutional state of mind
that emphasizes moving people instead of the mode of
transportation." Such tailored approaches are needed for
job-access transportation as well as transportation to
regional services, such as hospitals and clinics, food banks,
and crisis centers.
Given the patterns of land use and demography that now
exist in the United States, regional approaches are essen-
tial to address the economic, social, and human costs of
immobility. It will take a great deal of collaboration on
the part of governments, businesses, non-profit agencies,
churches, metropolitan planning organizations, and other
leading institutions to help knit together a plan that
addresses immobility across jurisdictional and institu-
tional boundaries.
S. SIMPLE IDEAS AND PROGRAMS CAN YIELD SIGNIFICANT
MOBILITY IMPROVEMENTS.
Many ofthe programs studied in this research begin with
simple ideas which have yielded significant results: None
are elaborate concepts; none required costly capital invest-
ments. Including these simple, independent programs into
the overall strategy of a company wit} reinforce the mobil-
ity management ethos of the organizations. Including
them can also be more effective than considering them as
TRANSIT VILLAGE BRINGS
SERVICES TO THE PEOPLE
The Bay Area Rapid
Transit District will
revitalize a rail station in a
low-income neighborhood
in Oakland, California. Its
partner, the Spanish
Speaking Unity Council,
will address immobility by
creating a Transit Village
at the hub, which features a
mix of social services, retail,
and residential uses.
RIDERS BENEFIT AS
METROPASS SAVES $$
..... ..
.......
Metro-Dade TransitAgency ~>
avoids $10 million annually
in paratransit costs through
the Metropass program it
created in partnership with
the Florida Medicare adminis-
tration. Medicare recipients
pay $1 for an unlimited
monthly pass, but give up
paratransit, saying Medicare
over $500K a month.
hi.,
OCR for page 10
adjuncts to the agency's mission, by assuring the programs
greater funding security and integration within the orga
·
mza ;lon.
CHECKLIST FOR
SUCCESSFUL
IMPLEMENTATION
Exert leadership.
Win internal support from
the staff and the policy-
makers.
Adopt a mobility manage-
ment mission.
Build community support.
Public transportation organizations cannot solve the
problems of immobility alone. As identified in the findings
above, coordination with organizations across other strata
of society will be needed to enhance options for personal
mobility. The transportation organizations visited in the
case studies had certain strategies in common that have
led to their success, which can be replicated by others.
These strategies can be summarized in the following
checklist for success:
EXERT LEADERSH/P
Leaders experiment; leaders challenge the status quo;
leaders inspire others with their vision. Leaders are
needed at many levels of society to solve the difficult
issues of immobility that have been presented in this
research. The collaborative efforts needed to tackle prob-
lems of immobility point to a role for social service agen-
cies, community-based organizations, local governments,
and employers, as well as transportation organizations.
Public transit cannot tackle immobility alone.
Nonetheless, mobility is the mission of transportation
organizations. Transit agencies need to seize the initiative
in their realm of expertise to insure the best transportation
alternatives are implemented. If transportation organiza-
tions do not take on this role, they may be preempted by
others with their own agendas. It is proper that transpor-
tation organizations be among the first to exert leadership
in addressing immobility. Without leadership, the prob-
lems of immobility will worsen and transportation organi-
zations will have failed in their mission.
"An administrator [e//s you WIN INTERNAL SUPPORT FROM STAFF AND POL/CY-MAKERS.
whatyou cannot do-what The culture of any organization hoping to solve immobility
the rules are. A manager problems must nurture an environment in which the key
rewrites the rules to get
things done." finilngs can be Implemented. This means encouraging
DannyAlvarez, Metro- staffto exercise leadership by taking the initiative and
Dade Transit Agency being creative. It means preventing bureaucracy and
~ · ~ ~ I · ~ - · ~ · A ~ ~ 1 ~ ~ ·1
hlerarchy trom stlillng innovation. A leader' by dehmtlon'
needs followers. If the leader fails to build support within
the organization' the innovation will languish or even be
sabotaged.
10
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ADOPT A MOB/] /TY MANAGEMENT M/SS/ON.
Effective mobility management requires viewing the
passenger transportation system as a whole. Mobility
management is the opposite of an institutional state of
mind that offers a single product with a "one size fits all"
approach. Specifically, mobility management is defined as
brokering, facilitating, encouraging, coordinating, and
managing both nontraditional and traditional services to
expand the array of transportation services to diverse
consumer groups. This is an inclusionary definition which
envisions responsibility from many partners to assist
public transportation in accomplishing its mission of mo-
bility.
BU/' D COMMUNITY SUPPORT.
Organizations cannot form nontraditional partnerships
(Finding 3), bundle transportation and support services
(Finding 5), and plan regionally (Finding 7) in the absence
of community support. Building community support takes
energy and visibility on the part of transit staff. It means
not only attending community meetings but also setting
up such meetings. In designing increased access to jobs
and health care, it means stepping outside the transporta-
tion field and learning other industries' terminology and
key players. But the rewards can be a wider constituency
of support for transit, an enhanced image of transit, avail-
ability of new financing sources and human resources, and,
consequently, more participation in society by those now
afflicted by immobility.
....
TELEVILLAGE IS AVIRTUAL :
...
MAIN STREET :
The Metropolitan Trans-
portation Author7-ty's Blue
Line TeleVillage contains a
Telework Center, a computer
lab with Internet access, a
video conference center, and
interactive kiosks. Residents
and employees in Compton,
California can access many
services without the need to
travel. The TeleVillage will
be part of a one-stop training
center for welfare recipients.
VOLUNTEERS
CONTRIBUTE 76K HOURS
FOR TRANSIT
OATS, INC. blends a wide
variety of funding to provide
transportation in 87
counties of rural Missouri.
Volunteers donate 76,000
hours annually, an equiva-
lent of 36 employees, for
scheduling and fundraising.
..... -
.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
transit agencies
