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OCR for page 142
Chapter 8
Cellulose Conversion
Cellulose is the earth's most abundant renewable raw material, with about
10-15 t per person produced annually by plants. Most of this cellulose occurs
in intimate association with a complex plant structural material called lignin.
The resulting lignocelluloses are by far the most prevalent renewable organic
materials available for microbial—or other—conversions.
Cellulose that is not lignif~ed (for instance, nonwoody aquatic plant
tissues, some papers, residues from chemical pulp mills, and certain natural
fibers such as cotton) may be available in sufficient quantity in some locales
to be considered for microbial conversions. A wide range of microorganisms
can degrade cellulose. Far fewer species can degrade the natural lignocellu-
loses because lignin limits access to the cellulose. In fact, at present, the only
currently operative means for converting unmodified lignocellulosics bio-
logically is through the production of various mushrooms, which are a good
source of protein for human consumption.
Pretreatment to disrupt or destroy the lignin barrier permits use of a
broader range of microorganisms. Both physical and chemical pretreatments
have been developed, but the former requires large amounts of energy. Chem-
ical pretreatment might be attractive in some situations, however, and two
that are now under investigation seem promising. In one, lignocellulose com-
plex is treated with concentrated phosphoric acid, in the other the lignocellu-
lose residues are treated with sulfur dioxide gas. In both cases this is followed
by neutralization with a base.
For some organisms it is necessary to disrupt the lignocellulose complex
and remove the lignin; for others removal of lignin is not necessary. Pretreat-
ment using easily manipulated reagents and unsophisticated equipment is
necessary for a cottage industry. Ambient temperature processing with min-
eral acids or alkalis followed by neutralization would meet these require-
ments but adds to the cost. Certain fungi, such as the mushrooms, decompose
lignin and some can be used effectively for pretreating lignocelluloses.
Table 8.1 lists nine microorganisms or processes that are either promising
or already in commercial use for the conversion of cellulose or lignocellulose.
As shown in Table 8.2, five of these require cellulose or pretreated lignocellu-
lose for efficient conversion. The processes vary not only in the type of
substrate and the product, but also in the degree of sophistication and in the
142
OCR for page 143
CELLULOSE CONVERSION
143
present state of knowledge and development. For each process, Table 8.2 lists
a specific organisms along with some of the conditions related to its use. In
the following pages, each process is discussed in more detail.
Volvariel/a Species
"Padi-straw" mushrooms (V. volvacea, shown in Figures 8.1 and 8.2, and
V. esculenta and F. displasza) are cultivated on rice straw and similar mate-
rials in the Orient and Africa. They are of increasing commercial importance,
but are also traditionally cultivated by individuals. They show promise of
greatly expanded use in grain-growing regions of the tropical world. Produc-
tion involves simply inoculating water-soaked straw in flat beds, maintaining
moisture at optimum levels, and harvesting the several crops of mushrooms.
The mushrooms may be dried for storage and later use. The spent straw is
used to inoculate fresh beds and is probably also used as animal feed.
Before 1970, rice straws were practically the only material used for the
preparation of the medium for the mushroom. Recently, a number of other
materials such as water hyacinth, oil-palm nut pericarp, cotton, and ba-
nana leaves have been shown to be satisfactory culture material. Undoubtedly
many other lignocellulosic agricultural residues could also be used satis-
factorily.
Kolvariella is primarily a fungus of the tropics and subtropics, the areas
that include most of the developing countries. These are also the areas in
which land is often considered to be the limiting factor in the production of
food. In the case of mushrooms cultivated on agricultural residues, land
ceases to be an important factor. According to recent data, 1 m2 of growth
space can produce 586 kg of mushrooms per year based on two crops per
month.
Limitations
There are no important limitations to the cultivation of Volvariella species
within the environmental range of growth.
Research Neecis
To support increased growth of Volvariella species for food, the following
research efforts are needed:
· Determination of the best species and strains for given locations and
substrates;
· Determination of the optimum environment for each species; and
· Evaluation of various substrates for maximum yields of the mushrooms.
.
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144
MICROBIAL PROCESSES
TABLE 8.1 Products of Cellulose- or Lignocellulose-Utilizing Microorganisms
Microorganism Product Present Status
Volvariella volvacea Human food (mushrooms); Some commercial
animal feed use
Lentinus edodes Human food (mushrooms); Used commercially
Pleurotus sp.
Thermoactinomycetes sp.
and other thermophilic
actinomycetes
Ph. an erochae te
chrysosponum
Trichoderma Reese
Clostridium thermocellum
Pseudomonas fluorescent
var. cellulosoe and
similar bacteria
Thermophilic
Sporocytophaga
animal feed
Human food (mushrooms);
animal feed
Human food (SCP); Under research
animal feed
Used commercially
Delignified cellulose Under research
for use as feed, fiber, or
further conversions
Cellulases for converting
cellulose to sugars;
animal feed (SCP)
Cellulases for converting
cellulose to sugar; ethanol,
acetate, lactate, and H2;
animal feed (SCP)
Under development
Under research
Animal feed; cellulases Under research
for converting cellulose
to sugars
Animal feed; ethanol, acetic Under research
acid
Lentinus edodes
The "shiitake" mushroom has been cultivated and used as human food for
centuries in China and Japan, where it is commercially produced in what now
is a multimillion dollar industry. It is not used much in most developing
countries, nor is it popular in the West where the common champignon,
Agaricus bisporus (A. brunnescens), is the mushroom of commerce. L. edodes
(Figure 8.3) has an important advantage over A. bisporus in that it can be
cultivated on wood, mainly but not exclusively on oak (Figure 8.4~. Thus, it
has potential for the direct bioconversion of lignif~ed residues and low-quality
wood into fungal protein. Wood decayed by L. edodes is quite digestible by
ruminants, although this potential use of the organism has received little
attention.
In general it takes 1~-3 years for the production of the fruit bodies after
inoculation in log wood. A new method, involving direct injection of the
liquid spawn into log wood, has shortened the fruiting time to about 6
months. With this method, the number of spawning points can be increased.
OCR for page 145
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OCR for page 146
146
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~3114
MICROBIAL PROCESSES
FIGURE 8.1 Fruiting bodies of Volvariella volvacae on straw-cotton waste compost.
(Photograph courtesy of S. T. Chang)
FIGURE 8.2 The "button" (left) and "egg" stages of Volvariella volvacea. (Photograph
courtesy of S. T. Chang)
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CELLULOSE CONVERSION
147
FIGURE 8.3 Lentinus edodes fruiting one year after inoculation on bolts of oak wood
in Japan. (Photograph courtesy of Y. Hashioka)
FIGURE 8.4 Typical arrangements of bolts of oak wood for cultivation of Lentinus
edodes (Japan). (Photograph courtesy of Y. Hashioka)
OCR for page 148
148
MICROBIAL PROCESSES
It also reduces the amount of manual labor and minimizes the loss of wood.
The shiitake mushroom is quite perishable, and the best way to preserve its
volatile compounds, amino acids, vitamin B content, and texture is by freeze
drying. Freeze-dned mushrooms are very close in composition to the original
fresh samples. Most of these mushrooms, however, are simply air-dried for
storage and marketing.
Limitations
L. edodes may not be suitable or efficient for use with many available
woods. No other limitations are expected within its environmental range.
Research bleeds
Further study should be focused on:
.
Evaluation of available wood species;
· Selection of best strains for specific substrates; and
· Evaluation of L. edodes wood residue as a ruminant feed.
Pleurotus Species
The "oyster" mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus and P. sojor-caju) and other
species (P. florida, P. eryngii, P. comucopiae, and P. cystidiosus; Figure 8.5),
like L. edodes, preferentially decompose lignin, although they also utilize cel-
lulose and other carbohydrate polymers in wood. As many as three successive
FIGURE 8.5 Fruiting bodies of Pleurotus cys~diosus, a commercial
and popular mushroom in Taiwan. (Photograph courtesy of J. T.
Peng)
OCR for page 149
CELLULOSE CONVERSION
149
harvests on a single substrate batch have been reported. These species have
the potential for converting sawmill residue and other low-value wood into
protein-rich food for human consumption. All are currently used as food.
P. cornucopian is grown commercially in Japan and P. ostreatus is grown com-
mercially in Eastern and Western Europe, but they apparently axe little used in
developing countries. P. ostreatus and P. Florida have temperature optima
near 30°C, making them promising for tropical applications. All can be culti-
vated on straw and on mixtures of sawdust, grain, manure, food-processing
wastes, and similar substrates with an added nitrogen source such as com-
mercial fertilizer. A large spawn inoculum eliminates the need for sterilization
as the mycelia quickly take over. Yields vary; the highest reported is 100
percent (1 kg per kg of dry substrate) on banana pseudostems.
Limitations
Substrates usually need to be pasteurized unless a large inoculum is used.
There are no other important limitations within a suitable environmental
range.
Research Needs
The study of Pleurotus sp. should be concentrated on:
· Further improvement of cultivation conditions; and
· Selection of the best strains for each location and substrate.
Thermoactinomyces Species
The thermophilic cellulolytic and starch-utilizing actinomycetes provide a
unique opportunity for development of a cottage industry for the production
of single-cell protein for food or animal feed. They can be grown on high
solids (40-60 percent moisture) under conditions of aeration and tempera-
ture in which most contaminants cannot compete.
At 40-60 percent moisture, the biomass is a thick paste or a damp, friable
solid. It can be spread as a thin layer in trays or on fine mesh screens in an
incubator. The screens are preferable to trays because both sides are exposed
to air. It is necessary to control temperature, moisture content, pH, and
oxygen content during growth. The organisms tolerate variations in tempera-
ture (50°-65°C), moisture (40-60 percent), pH (6.8-8.5), and oxygen (1-20
percent).
All plants and plant wastes are potential substrates for these organisms.
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150
MICROBIAL PROCESSES
Starchy materials such as cassava, banana, potato, and corn starch can be used
directly, while cellulosic materials require pretreatment. The extent and kind
of pretreatment depends upon the substrate. Waste newspaper usually con-
tains lignocellulose and may require pretreatment. Soft woods contain more
lignin and may require more extensive pretreatment than hardwoods. The
lignin content of all fibrous plants increases with age. Therefore, young suc-
culent plants may be utilized without pretreatment, while mature plants of
the same species will require pretreatment. Removal of the lignin is not
necessary for cellulose utilization and growth, but the lignocellulose complex
must be ruptured, so cellulolytic enzymes can penetrate and hydrolyze the
cellulose. Without pretreatment, cellulose utilization is much less complete.
Using this organism on various starch and cellulose substrates would be
labor intensive but would require minimal capital and technology. The pro-
cess is no more complicated than making cheese or wine. It can be carried out
under clean but nonsterile conditions. However, an environment should be
selected in which undesirable contaminants cannot grow.
Thermophilic actinomycetes such as Thermoactinomyces sp. have the fol-
lowing characteristics, making them good candidates for a cottage industry:
.
They grow at 55°-65° C. Twenty-four hours or more of growth at this
temperature range results in a pasteurized product in which most known
pathogens would be destroyed.
.
They grow rapidly, with a minimum of growth requirements. Fermenta-
tion should be complete within a few days.
· If proper control of temperature and moisture is exercised, thermo-
philic actinomycetes will be the predominant if not the only organism
present. Only actinomycetes, thermophilic bacteria, and a few algae grow
above 55°C. If the moisture content is kept in the range of 40-60 percent,
other bacteria cannot compete effectively. Thermophilic algae will not be a
problem in dark growth chambers.
· Nutrients and seed culture can be added from a prepackaged mix, just
as yeast is now prepared for bread and wine making.
· A variety of inexpensive organic and inorganic nitrogen sources can be
used.
· Temperature and moisture can be manually controlled by moving trays
to different incubators or to different parts of the same incubator.
Limitations
Thermoactinomyces sp. does not efficiently utilize lignin-cellulose com-
plex found in most plants. A pretreatment of the substrate may be needed in
some cases.
"Farmer's lung" is a possible occurrence; it is caused by inhalation of
large numbers of spores, and is an allergic response rather than an infection
OCR for page 151
CELLULOSE CONVERSION
151
caused by colonization of the respiratory tract. The symptoms are cate-
gorized as hyperactivity pneumonitis or extrinsic allergic alveolitis. If condi-
tions are maintained so that the product remains moist, spore inhalation can
be minimized. Thermophilic actinomycetes have not been reported to pro-
duce aflatoxins or other mycotoxins, as have many of the higher fungi.
Research bleeds
The following research efforts should be emphasized:
· Composition analysis of the single-cell protein product;
· Nutritional evaluation of the product;
· A detailed description of the construction and operation of a low-
technology incubator;
· Preparation of a culture and nutrient packet; and
· A description of methods for use and preservation of the product.
Phanerochaete chrysosporium
A ubiquitous wood-decay fungus that inhabits the northern hemisphere is
called, variously, Peniophora "G." Ch7ysosponum pminosum, C. Iignorum,
Sporotrichum pulverulentum, S. pruinosum, and P. chrysosporium. It is one
of the organisms most damaging to stored wood chips, and, like Pleurotus sp.
and L. edodes, decomposes all components of wood. Among the several
hundred species of lignocellulose-destroying fungi, P. chrysosporium is
unusual in that: 1) it produces copious quantities of asexual spores, malting it
easy to handle; 2) it is thermotolerant, growing optimally at 35°-40°C, but
also growing well at 25°C; 3) it grows very rapidly and is an aggressive com-
petitor; and 4)it decomposes lignin as rapidly as any organism thus far
studied. Therefore, P. chrysosporium has been selected for detailed study of
lignin degradation and the microbial processing of wood.
This fungus should be studied further for converting wood-processing
residues and other signified wastes. The selective degradation of lignin caused
by the fungus increases rumen digestibility, and the fungal mycelium adds
protein. Partial decay of wood wastes by P. chrysosporium should render
them suitable for ruminant feed or for further digestion to sugars by cellu-
lolytic enzymes (see discussion of Trichoderma reesei below) or by bacteria.
The fungus has been fed to fish and rats as the sole protein source with no
adverse effects.
Limitation
Some substrates might have to be pasteurized for successful growth of the
organism.
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152
Research Needs
MICROBIAL PROCESSES
Further study on P. chrysosporium should have the following goals:
· Determining optimum conditions for delignification of specific sub-
strates:
· Evaluating properties of products;
· Selecting superior strains and achieving genetic improvement; and
Establishing sterility requirements.
.
Trichoderma reesei
A number of fungi are cellulolytic, but only a few produce cell-free en-
zymes in sufficient quantity to be of value in degrading cellulose. Tri-
choderma reesei forms a stable cellulase system that is capable of extensive
degradation of cellulose.
T. reesei grows rapidly on simple media and does not require supplemental
growth factors. In agitated culture, it produces short mycelial threads; rarely
does it form pellets on carbohydrates. It is a strong acid producer and will
grow under pH conditions as low as 2.5; during actual enzyme production,
the medium can be adjusted to pH 3, thus minimizing contamination. Media
can be inoculated with a spore suspension or with a small volume of cellulose-
containing mycelia.
To obtain the highest yield of enzyme, interfering substances such as lignin
must be removed and the cellulose pretreated.
The cellulases of T. reesei have been studied more extensively than those
from other organisms. There is extensive literature on conditions of grows
for enzyme production, enzyme isolation and purification, and properties of
isolated enzymes. If a commercial process for large-scale use of cellulase
enzymes is developed, it will probably use T. reesei.
Little research has been done on SCP production by T. reesei. The protein
content and amino acid profile are similar to the microfung~ in that the
protein is limited in sulfur-containing amino acids. The value of the protein
from T. reesei in hum art nutrition has not been reported.
Limitations
The use of Trichoderma reesei will most likely be limited to the produc-
tion of enzymes from pretreated cellulosic material. This will require fer-
menters and fermenter technology that may not be available in some devel-
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CELLULOSE CONVERSION
153
oping countries. Native lignocellulose would require pretreatment, such as
deli~ification.
If T. reesei is grown under nonsterile conditions there is a danger of
contamination by mycotoxin-producing fungi.
Research bleeds
Many basic and pilot-plant studies have been completed. But more work
will be needed, especially on:
· Production of cellulase from Trzchoderw~a reesei by the koji process;
and
· Methods for increasing enzyme production, substrate-enzyme suscepti-
bility, and enzyme recovery after use.
Other Species*
Some gram-negative, aerobic bacteria such as those in the genera Pseudo-
monas and Xanthomonas as well as gram-positive Cellulomonas species utilize
cellulose but do not utilize lignin; therefore, some form of pretreatment
before fermentation is required. These bacteria grow rapidly at room temper-
ature (20°-30°C), are obligate aerobes, and usually require yeast extract or
some growth factors. These nonspore-forming bacteria are readily digested by
livestock. The amino acid composition is similar to that of other bacteria and
constitutes a source of nutritional protein.
Co-fermentation of mesquite wood with P. fluorescences and a yeast, Can-
dida utilis, has been conducted. The protein yield of Cellulomonas has been
increased by co-fermentation of cellulose with Alcaligenes faecalis and with
Cellulomonas flavigena and Xanthomonas campestris. Apparently, co-fermen-
tation with a noncellulolytic organism increases the rate of utilization of
soluble sugars produced by hydrolysis of cellulose.
Limitations
The bacteria mentioned above grow at pH levels of 6.5-8.0 and the fer-
mentations are subject to contamination by noncellulolytic bacteria as well as
pathogens; therefore, aseptic conditions must be maintained throughout the
fermentation. The need for pretreatment, either chemical or biological, in-
*See also discussion of SCP production in Chapter 2.
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154
MICROBIAL PROCESSES
creases the cost of protein produced. These bacteria are small (about
1,u x 0.5,u) and must be harvested by differential centrifugation or recovered
on very fine filters.
Research Needs
Research is reseeded to:
o Determine the effect of lignin on cellulose utilization; and
· Evaluate pretreatment needs for specific substrates such as bagasse,
waste paper, and various woods.
References and Suggested Reading
Vo/variella Species
Chang, S. T. 1965. How to grow straw mushrooms. Quarterly Journal of the Taiwan
Museu m (Taipei). 1 8: 4 7 7-4 8 7.
1977. The straw mushroom as a good source of food protein in Southeast Asia.
Paper presented at the Fifth International Conference on Global Impacts of Applied
Microbiology, November 21-25, 1977, Bangkok, Thailand.
, and Hayes, W. A. 1978. The biology and cultivation of edible mushrooms. New
York: Academic Press.
Chua, S. E., and Ho, S. Y. 1973. Cultivation of straw mushrooms. World Crops 25:90-
91.
Gray, W. D. 1970. The use of fungi as food and in food processing. West Palm Beach,
Florida: CRC Press.
Ho, Ming-shu. 1972. Straw mushroom cultivation in plastic houses. Mushroom Science
8: 257-263.
Singer, R. 1961. Mushrooms and truffles. Bedfordshire, England: Leonard Hill Books
distributed in the United States by John Wiley and Sons (World Crop Books), New
York.
,
Len tin us edodes Species
Akiyama, H.; Akiyama, R.; Akiyama, I.; Kato, A.; and Nakazawa, K. 1974. The new
cultivation of shiitake in a short period. Mushroom Science 9:423-434.
Gray, W. D. 1970. The use of fungi as food and in food processing. West Palm Beach,
Florida: CRC Press.
Singer, R. 1961. Mushrooms and truffles. Bedfordshire, England: Leonard Hill Books,
distributed in the United States by John Wiley and Sons (World Crop Books), New
York.
Pleurotus Species
Block, S. S., et al. 1959. Experiments in the cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus. Mush-
room Science 4:309-325.
Gray, W. D. 1970. The use of fungi as food and in food processing. West Palm Beach,
Florida: CRC Press.
Kaneshiro, T. 1976. Lignocellulosic agricultural wastes degraded by Pleurotus ostreatus.
Developments in Industrial Microbiology 18:591-597.
OCR for page 155
CELLULOSE CONVERSION
155
Singer, R. 1961. Mushrooms and truffles. Bedfordshire, England: Leonard Hill Books,
distributed in the United States by John Wiley and Sons (World Crop Books), New
York.
Zadrazil, F. 1976. The ecology and industrial production of Pleurotus ostreatus,
P. florida, P. cornucopian, and P. eryngii. Mushroom Science (London) 9 (Part-1):
621-652.
Thermoactinomyces Species
Bellamy, W. D. 1974. Single cell proteins from cellulosic wastes. Biotechnology and
Bioengzneering 16:869.
. 1976. Production of single-cell protein for animal feed from lignocellulose
wastes. World Animal Review 18: 39.
. 1977. Cellulose and lignocellulose digestion by thermophilic actinomyces for
single-cell protein production. Developments in Industrial Microbiology 8:249-254.
Blyth, E. 1973. Farmer's lung disease in actinomvcetales. In Actinr~mvretal~.v rharart~r-
,, ~ . . . .
istics and practical importance, G. S. Sykes and F. A. Skinner, eds., pp. 261-276.
New York: Academic Press.
Crawford, D. L. 1974. Growth of Thermomonospora fusca on lignocellulose pulps of
varying lignin content. Canadian Journal of Micro biology 20:1069-1072.
; E. McCoy; J. M. Harkin; and P. Jones. 1973. Production of microbial protein
from waste cellulose by Thermomonospora fusca, a thermophilic actinomycete. Bio-
technology and Bioengzneering 14:833-843.
Gray, W. D. 1970. The use of fungi as food and in food processing. West Palm Beach,
Florida: CRC Press.
Hesseltine, C. W. 1972. Solid state fermentations. Biotechnology and Bioengineering
14:517-532.
Imrie, F. 1975. Single-cell protein from agricultural wastes. New Scientist 66:458.
Stutzenberger, F. J. 1972. Cellulolytic activity of Thermomonospora curvata: nutritional
requirements for cellulase production Applied Microbiology 24:77-82.
Terui, G.; Shibasaki, I.; and Mochiguki T. 1958. Studies on high-heap aeration process as
applied to some industrial fermentations: II. General description of the improved
process. Osaka University Technology Reports 3: 214.
Phanerochaete chrysosporium
Ander, P., and Eriksson, K.-E. 1977. Lignin degradation and utilization by microorgan-
isms. Archives of Microbiology 109:1-15.
Burdsall, H. H., Jr., and Eslyn, W. E. 1974. A new Phanerochaete with a Chrysosponum
imperfect state. Mycotaxon 1 :123-133.
Eriksson, K.-E., and Pettersson, B. 1972. Extracellular enzyme system utilized by the
fungus Chrysosporium li~corum for the breakdown of cellulose. In Biodetenoration
of materials: Proceedings of the International Biodeterioration Symposium, 2nd,
Lunteren, The Netherlands. A. Harry Walters and E. H. Hueck-Van Der Plas, eds.,
Vol. 2, pp. 116-120. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Hofsten, B. V., and Hofsten, A. V. 1974. Ultrastructure of a thermotolerant basidio-
mycete possibly suitable for production of food protein. Applied Microbiology
27:1 142-1 148.
Kirk, T. K.; Yang, H. H.; and Keyser, P. 1978. The chemistry and physiology of the
fungal degradation of lignin. In Developments in Industrial Microbiology, Proceedings
of the Annual Meeting, August 21-26, 1977, Michigan State University, Lansing,
Michigan, L. A. Underkofler, ea., pp. 51-61. Arlington, Virginia: American Institute
of Biological Sciences.
Trichoderma reesei
Gaden, E. L., Jr.; Mandels, M.; Reese, E. T.; and Spano, L. A., eds. 1976. Enzymatic
conversion of cellulosic materials: technology and applications. New York: John
Wiley and Sons.
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156
MICROBIAL PROCESSES
Mandels, M., and Web er, J. 1969. The production of cellulases. In Cellulases and their
application. Advances in Chemistry Series, No. 95, pp. 391-414. Washington, D.C.:
American Chemical Society.
Other Species
Bruit, C., and Kushner, J. J. 1976. Cellulase induction and the use of cellulose as a
preferred growth substrate by Cellvibrio gilvus. Canadian Journal of A'ficrobiology
22: 1777-1787.
Dunlop, C. E. 1975. Production of single-cell protein from insoluble agricultural wastes
by mesophiles. In Single-cell protein II. S. R. Tannenbaum and D. E. Wana. eds..
7 —— ~ ~ _ _ ~ ~ ~
pp. 244-267. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.
Han, Y. W., and Callihan, C. D. 1974. Cellulose fermentation: effect of substrate pre-
treatment on microbial growth. Applied Microbiology 27:159-165.
Thayer, D. W. 1976. A submerged culture process for production of cattle feed from
mesquite wood. Developments in Industrial Microbiology 17: 1779-1789.
Research Contacts and Culture Sources
Volveriella Species
Romeo V. Alicbusan, Science Research Supervisor and Head, Microbiological Research
Department, National Institute of Science and Technology, Manila, lThe Philippines.
S. T. Chang, Department of Biology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New
Territories, Hong Kong.
Yoshio Hashioka, 2337 Shinkano Naka, Kagamigahara City, Gifu, Japan
James P. San Antonio, Genetics and Germ Plasm Institute, Vegetable Laboratory,
BARC-W, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Science and Education Administration,
Beltsville, Maryland 20705, U.S.A.
Lung-chi Wu, Campbell Institute for Agricultural Research, Napoleon, Ohio 43545,
U.S.A.
Pleurotus Species
Gerlind Eger, Institut fux Pharmazeutische Technologie, Universitat Marburg, Marbacher
Weg 6, 355 Marburg, West Germany.
S. C. Jong, Mycology Department, American Tvne. C~,lt',re. (~nile.r~tinn
Drive. Rockville. Marvland 28052 U.S.A.
~ .r r~ .. , 12301 Parklawn
7 ~
J. T. Peng, Mushroom Research Laboratory, Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute,
Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.
James P. San Antonio, Genetics and Germ Plasm Institute, Vegetable Laboratory,
BARC-W, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Science and Education Administration,
Beltsville, Maryland 20705, U.S.A.
Thermoactinomyces Species
Cellulose- or starchutilizing thermophilic actinomycetes can easily be isolated from
any compost pile by culturing on starch agar or cellulose agar plates at 55°- 65°C.
W. D. Bellamy, Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York,
14853, U.S.A.
D. L. Crawford, Department of Bacteriology and Biochemistry, University of Idaho,
Moscow, Idaho 83843, U.S.A.
Phanerochaete chrysosporium
Karl-Erik Eriksson, Swedish Forest Products Research Laboratory, Noc 5064, S-114 86
Stockholm, Sweden.
OCR for page 157
CELLULOSE CONVERSION
157
T. Kent Kirk, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Products Labora-
tory, P.O. Box 5130, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, U.S.A.
Trichoderma reesei
Elwyn Reese, Food Science Laboratory, U.S. Army, Natick Research and Development
Command, Natick, Massachusetts 01760, U.S.A.
Other Species
V. R. Srinivasan, Department of Microbiology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge,
Louisiana 70803, U.S.A.
D. W. Thayer, Department of Biological Sciences and Food Nutrition, Texas Tech-
nological University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, U.S.A.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
cellulose conversion
