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OCR for page 230
230
THE LIFE SCIENCES
The pattern of these moves is of interest in itself. Although institutions
of higher learning were the principal source of those who entered the employ
of the federal government, private industry, and other organizations, in a
general way each employing entity in the system also tended to recruit
from other institutions in the same category. For example, 36 percent of
all those in private industry had been employed by a different corporation,
and 19 percent of those now working for an independent hospital or clinic
had previously worked for some other independent hospital or clinic.
Two thirds of those who had moved to an institution of higher learning
had come from another such institution. Of the remainder, 13 percent had
left the federal government, 5 percent private industry, 5 percent other
nonprofit organizations, and 8 percent various other state and community
institutions. Perhaps the major surprise in these data is the fact that, ignor-
ing graduate and postdoctorate education, institutions of higher learning
appeared to be a net importer of scientific employees. Whereas 1,750
individuals whose previous employers had been nonacademic institutions
currently were employed by the universities, only 1,260 individuals cur-
rently employed by nonacademic institutions had previously been employed
by universities or colleges.
Respondents to the questionnaire were not queried about their motivation
in accepting offers of new positions. It may be assumed that these were
responses to offers of higher pay, of opportunity to engage in independent
research or research under more desirable conditions, or to locate in geo-
graphical areas attractive to the families of the scientists concerned.
PREVIOUS EDUCATION OF WORKING LIFE SCIENTISTS
In the foregoing summary, the initial training of working life scientists was
categorized in disciplinary terms that are familiar as the titles of academic
departments and that are employed in most statistical collections. How-
ever, the reader who has considered earlier chapters will have recognized
that these conventional subdisciplinary titles have, in considerable measure,
lost their meaning and convey false distinctions. Whereas biochemists were
formerly concerned largely with elucidation of metabolic maps, they may
today be concerned with macromolecular structure, the chemistry of cell-
cell recognition, or the phenomena responsible for atherosclerosis. Not so
long ago, microbiologists were overwhelmingly concerned with the taxonomy
of microbiological forms, yet today they may be concerned with genetic
mechanisms or the nature of the immune response to invasion by some
specific organism. Hematologists, who only yesterday were describing
OCR for page 231
THE WORLD OF BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH 231
changes in the morphology of blood cells in leukemia as seen with a light
microscope, are now intimately involved in understanding the manner in
which nucleic acids control the differentiation process among white blood
cell types. Physiologists, who formerly engaged in studies of the mechanics
of muscular contraction or morphological changes induced by steroid hor-
mones, are today inquiring into mechanisms of transmembranal transport
or the molecular events by which steroid hormones affect protein biosyn-
thesis in receptor cells. Botanists, once engaged in taxonomic studies or
in gross plant physiology, are today concerned with the phenomena by
which plants interact with other organisms and with their environment,
the cardinal aspects of ecology, while zoologists may be concerned with all
those aspects of the environment that have favored rapid proliferation of
new species in one set of circumstances or remarkably prolonged survival,
unchanged, of other species, studies that embrace all aspects of ecology,
genetics, biochemistry, and physiology. Even more dramatic have been
the changes in the character of research in clinical medicine, pathology,
and pharmacology. Investigators in these areas have learned to use the most
recent developments in understanding such phenomena as protein structure,
enzyme kinetics, transmembranal transport, neural transmission, immuno-
chemistry, viral reproduction, lipid metabolism, and behavioral genetics as
they explore disease mechanisms in man or animals, design and test new
drugs, or prepare a patient for organ transplantation. And their laboratories
cannot be distinguished from those of other scientists so engaged.
Because of these rapidly evolving and profound trends, it appeared de-
sirable to reconsider individual scientists, not under classical disciplinary
labels, but in relation to the nature of the research conducted during their
initial formal education in graduate school and in relation to the research
in which they are currently engaged. That two individuals are studying
cellular structure and function is more significant than that one considers
himself a zoologist and the other a botanist. The plant pathologist may have
more in common with an animal pathologist than with a plant taxonomist,
and similar considerations are obvious for plant and animal physiologists,
or for plant, animal, and microbial geneticists, for example.
Thus, we have found it useful to recategorize life sciences research into
the following dozen classifications:
Behavioral biology
Cell biology
Developmental biology
Disease mechanisms
Ecology
Evolution and systematic biology
Genetics
Molecular biology and biochemistry
Morphology
Nutrition
Pharmacology
Physiology
OCR for page 232
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OCR for page 233
THE WORLD OF BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
It will be evident that even these categories are somewhat arbitrary and
are by no means mutually exclusive. They fail to make clear the fact that
biochemistry, a research area itself, is also the common language and the
tool for almost every other entry in the classification scheme. However,
the questions being asked of nature by scientists within each category are
sufficiently distinct to permit self-identification by our respondents, while
providing a more revealing description of the life sciences endeavor than
that offered by more traditional disciplinary titles.
Tables 9 and 10 summarize the current research areas of some of our
respondents, comparing their current areas of involvement with the dis-
ciplines and research areas in which they had been trained as graduate
students. As a consequence of an awkwardness in the design of the layout
of the printed questionnaire, almost a quarter of all respondents failed to
provide information concerning the research fields, as here categorized, in
which they had been trained and in which they are currently engaged.
However, as indicated in Appendix A, it appears fair to assume that the
patterns revealed by those who did not overlook this question are repre-
sentative of the total.
As indicated by the diagonal of Table 9, current research in any given
area is conducted predominantly by individuals who were trained in that
area, varying from 49 percent of those currently engaged in behavioral
biology to 85 percent of those working in genetics. Equally impressive,
however, is the degree of intellectual migration among research fields. Thus,
48 percent of all those trained in morphology are now engaged in some
other area, as are 39 percent of those originally trained in cell biology,
33 percent of those trained in developmental biology, and 30 percent of
those trained in physiology. Maximum field retention was found among
those trained in pharmacology, ecology, genetics, and molecular biology
and biochemistry. Perhaps the most striking fact shown by the table is
that every possible crossover was reported. Noteworthy, too, are the fields
that, on balance, have either attracted more investigators than they have
lost, or vice versa. The "gainers" include molecular biology and biochem-
istry, behavioral biology, cellular biology, disease mechanisms, ecology, and
pharmacology. The most significant "losers," in absolute numbers rather
than percentages, were genetics, morphology, nutrition, and physiology,
with developmental biology and systematic biology remaining approxi-
mately in balance.
Many biologists currently consider that there has been a rapid growth
in the opportunities for fruitful studies in behavioral and developmental
biology and in ecology. But these data indicate that, although there has
been some modest influx into these fields, it is not yet particularly striking,
OCR for page 234
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OCR for page 237
THE WORLD OF BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
although graduate enrollments have been affected in the predicted direc-
tions. Moreover, the changes are generally immediately lateral in the sense
that most of those who have changed research areas have moved into areas
in which they can apply the skills and insights of their primary training.
This is most certainly the case for the 184 of 287 individuals who left
molecular biology and biochemistry to enter upon studies in cellular biology,
disease mechanisms, pharmacology, or physiology, as it must also be true
for the. 317 individual who left nhvsiolo~v to enter other biological cate
^~^ ~ _ ~ I ^~^ ~ ^~^ - '' ^~ r J DO
gorles.
Only 741 scientists were sufficiently certain of their plans to change re-
search areas in the future to so indicate. And again, the planned changes
were, in the main, relatively conservative (Table 11) and into closely
related areas, e.g., molecular biology to genetics, genetics to molecular
biology, physiology to pharmacology, botany to ecology. Molecular biology
will be the chief gainer (19 percent of all who plan to change), largely
from cellular biology and physiology. However, it will lose a slightly larger
number (20 percent), mainly to cell biology, developmental biology, and
disease mechanisms. Disease mechanisms attracts the second largest group
(15 percent), largely from among those now engaged in cellular biology,
biochemistry, and physiology, while developmental biology also seems
attractive to tliose in the same group of research areas (12 percent). The
survey revealed a particularly interesting trend. Some ecologists indicated
plans to enter behavioral biology, while a significant number of physiolo-
gists and students of disease were seriously considering switching to ecology.
Moreover, the perhaps not unexpected conservative migratory pattern
Is again evident from the responses of life scientists who intended to change
the biological material with which they were working. In a general way,
those now seriously contemplating such a change are, in the main, thinking
of switching either to the next higher or the next lower level of biological
organization, e.g., from broken cell preparations to cells or tissue culture
or to molecular systems; or from intact organs to either intact organisms or
cellular preparations.
Table 12 relates research areas to the principal employers of the 8,139
individuals for whom such information is available. Of this subset, insti-
tutions of higher learning employed 68 percent, the federal government
14 percent, industry 9 percent, and all other nonprofit organizations, hos-
pitals, etc., 9 percent. Noteworthy are the high levels of employment by
the federal government of those studying ecology and disease mechanisms;
the government shows much less interest in developmental biology, mor-
phology, and pharmacology. Private business employs an unusually high
fraction of all nutritionists and pharmacologists, but appears to have little
interest in ecology, systematic biology, or morphology.
OCR for page 238
238 THE LIFE SCIENCES
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
life scientists
