Index
A
Academic performance, 2, 16, 17, 19, 20
adequacy of education, 110, 115-116, 118-119, 122
disadvantaged students, 10, 211
education production, 136-137, 142, 152-153
incentives and, general, 3, 8, 9, 62
school-level factors, 6, 7, 10, 12, 24, 136-137, 145, 317-318
see also Educational achievement; Educational attainment; Performance standards; Test results
Accountability, 267, 272-273, 274-275
bureaucratization, 159-160
charter schools, 187
high-stakes testing, 180-181, 183
school-based, 9, 180-181, 182, 190, 320-321
special education, 224, 225, 226
teachers/staff, 165, 224, 272-273
Adequacy, educational, 2, 7, 10, 16, 61, 101-133, 197-198, 264-265 , 266-267
academic performance and, 110, 115-116, 118-119, 122
class size, 106, 108, 118, 121
concept, general, 2, 6, 101-106, 112-114, 132, 133, 166, 264
cost-efficiency, 107-108, 116, 165
costs, 107-108, 109, 112, 114-131, 165, 265
costs, statistical analyses, 114, 115-118
court decisions, 6, 80, 101-102, 103, 106, 107-112, 122, 132-133, 166, 167
democratic threshold principle (Gutmann), 104, 105
distributive justice (Rawls), 103-104
district-level factors, 116-117, 118-120, 124, 128-131
educational achievement, 104, 105-106, 107-108, 114, 124, 131-132, 166, 265
education reform and, 135, 136, 140-147, 161
education standards, 2, 6, 101-103 (passim), 107-108, 112-113
performance standards, 110, 113, 115, 118-120, 122, 132, 166
formulas for distributing funds, 103, 104, 124-133 (passim)
foundation aid, 12, 59, 88, 106, 119-120, 131, 257, 261
inputs into education, general, 102-103, 104, 119, 121, 124-125, 126, 128, 166, 264
outcomes of education, 2, 102, 117-120, 122, 166, 264
political factors, 2, 103, 105, 110, 111, 112-113, 132, 133, 166
poverty, 103, 119-120, 125, 127, 128, 133, 198, 265
professional judgment model, 114, 120-123
quantitative vs qualitative, 103-104, 112
school-based factors, individual schools, 102, 113, 118, 120(n.9), 130-131, 133
socioeconomic factors, general, 102, 103, 107, 109, 112, 115, 118, 120, 125
special-needs students, 110-111, 127, 265
state-level issues, 6, 80, 101-102, 103, 105, 107-111, 112, 114-131 (passim), 133, 166
court decisions, 6, 80, 101-102, 103, 106, 107-112, 122, 132-133, 166, 167
legislation, 110-111, 112, 122, 130-131, 133, 166
test results, 113-117 (passim), 120
whole-school designs, 114-115, 122, 123-124, 151, 153, 196, 213, 225
Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 58, 235
African Americans, see Black persons
Alabama, 54, 97, 103, 107, 108, 111, 210-211
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 157
American Community Survey, 198, 323-324
Arizona, 85, 107, 111, 230, 245
Attitudes, see Public opinion
B
Bagley v. Raymond School Department, 230
Bilingual education, 82, 86-87
educational attainment, 45
rural areas, 68
spending reforms, 91
test scores, 45-46
Brown v. Board of Education, 6, 18, 68, 70, 82, 99, 100
Bureaucracy, 18, 155, 156, 158-160, 174, 208
Burrus v. Wilkerson, 74
C
California, 129
class size, 212
equity, 87
revenue raising, 58, 71, 72-74, 76, 235, 236, 245, 249-253, 254, 255-256, 258, 262
special education, 224
spending, 31, 87, 90, 98, 224, 249-253, 258
Serrano v. Priest, 71, 72-74, 76, 77, 79, 80, 87, 96, 250-253, 256 , 258, 318
teachers, 169
Campaign for Fiscal Equity v. State of New York, 108
Campbell v. State, 109
Categorical programs, 6, 10-11, 60, 73, 81-82, 214, 259-260
special education, 41-43, 82, 126-127, 196, 217-227
see also Title I programs
Chapter 1 programs, see Title I programs
Charter schools, 8, 9, 29, 133, 185, 186-188, 189, 190, 191-192, 229, 231
Chittenden Town School District v. Vermont Department of Education , 230
Church schools, see Religious schools
Cities, see Urban areas
City of Pawtucket v. Sundlun, 110
Claremont v. Governor of New Hampshire, 109
Class size, 10, 167, 196, 197, 205, 254, 267, 273
adequacy of education, 106, 108, 118, 121
education production, 138, 141, 143-146 (passim), 160, 161
research on, 210-211, 212-213, 273
Coalition for Adequacy v. Chiles, 109-110
Coleman Report, see Equality of Educational Opportunity
Committee for Educational Rights v. Edgar, 109
Compensatory education, 11-12, 27, 29, 46, 82, 83, 87, 202-206
see also Title I programs
Comprehensive School Reform Demonstration program, 150, 213, 216
Constitution of the U.S., see U.S. Constitution
Contract schools, 9, 124, 153, 188-189, 267
Cost indices, 40-41, 93-94, 126, 128-129, 198
consumer price index, 40, 41, 126
adequacy concept, 107-108, 109, 112, 114-131, 165, 197-199, 265
statistical analyses, 114, 115-118
adjustments for changes in, 40-41, 112, 126, 131
charter schools, 188
class size reductions, 212
cost-efficiency, 4, 8-9, 17, 22-23, 33, 34, 38, 40, 87, 136, 163, 168-176, 188, 247, 254-255
adequacy concept, 107-108, 116, 165
data needs, 198
early childhood education, 203
econometric studies, 127-128
empirical models, 114, 118-120
facilities, schools, 199-200
inflation, 40, 41, 93, 94, 112, 131
need-based adjustments, 197-199
poverty areas, 2, 198-199, 205, 259
professional judgment models, 114, 120-124
socioeconomic factors, general, 115, 118, 120
special education, 41-42, 217, 219, 222, 227
statistical models, adequacy concept, 115-118
teachers, 168-176
technology, educational, 201
whole-school designs, 114-115, 122, 123-124, 213
Court cases, 6, 31-32, 70-81, 90-91, 94, 95-103, 106-111, 257
Bagley v. Raymond School Department, 230
Brown v. Board of Education, 6, 19, 68, 70, 82, 99, 100
Burrus v. Wilkerson, 74
Campaign for Fiscal Equity v. State of New York, 108
Campbell v. State, 109
Chittenden Town School District v. Vermont Department of Education , 230
City of Pawtucket v. Sundlun, 110
Claremont v. Governor of New Hampshire, 109
Coalition for Adequacy v. Chiles, 109-110
Committee for Educational Rights v. Edgar, 109
Danson v. Casey, 79
DeRolph v. Ohio, 108-109
East Jackson Public Schools v. State, 88
Edgewood v. Kirby, 80, 101, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112
Harper v. Hunt, 103
Jackson v. Benson, 229
Lau v. Nichols, 86-87
Leandro v. State of North Carolina, 109
McInnis v. Shapiro, 74
Milliken v. Bradley, 82-83, 88
Olsen v. State, 79
Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. Pennsylvania, 86
Rodriguez v. Los Angeles Unified School District, 31, 82
Roosevelt Elementary School District v. Bishop, 108
Rose v. Council for Better Education, 81, 107
San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez, 72
Seattle v. State of Washington, 77, 78
Serrano v. Priest, 71, 72-74, 76, 77, 79, 80, 87, 96, 250-253, 256 , 258, 318
Simmons-Harris v. Goff, 229
Tennessee Small School Systems v. McWherter, 108
Thompson v Engelking, 78-79
Washakie v. Herschler, 109
Curriculum issues, 9, 15, 113, 123-124, 153, 155, 158, 177, 183, 188, 255
special education, 223, 224, 225, 226
D
Damson v. Casey, 79
Decentralization, 5, 8, 20, 32-33, 157-160, 271, 320
bureaucracy, 18, 155, 156, 158-160, 174, 208
charter schools, 8, 9, 29, 133, 185, 186-188, 189, 190, 191-192, 229, 231
contract schools, 9, 124, 153, 188-189, 267
parental school spending decisions, 9, 11, 29, 62, 105, 164, 165, 183-184, 190-195
school or site-based management (SBM), 9, 151-152, 157, 178, 185-186
vouchers, 9, 10, 11, 133, 192, 194, 229-231, 269, 273-274
see also School-based factors, individual schools
Delaware, 59
Demographic factors, 18-19, 39
see also Minority groups; Poverty; Race, spending on education by; Socioeconomic factors; Urban areas
DeRolph v. Ohio, 108-109
Desegregation, see Racial discrimination/segregation
Disabled students, see Students with disabilities
Disadvantaged students, see Poverty; Special-needs students
District-level factors, 3, 11, 22-23, 27, 28-32, 62
adequacy of education, 116-117, 118-120, 124, 128-131
concentration and decentralization, 28, 32-33
education production, 144, 152-153
facilities, schools, 199
interdistrict disparities, 11, 24, 29, 31, 46, 50, 74, 77, 80, 83, 84, 85, 90, 92-99 (passim), 110, 125, 128-129, 191, 196, 228, 231, 236-237, 247, 250-252, 260, 265
district power equalizing, 59, 75, 77, 84, 88, 96, 247, 253, 256-258 , 265
intradistrict disparities, 6, 8, 11, 24, 29, 31, 99, 228-229, 231, 265, 320
NCES core data, 316
poverty areas, 6, 10, 20, 46-49, 51, 74, 76, 103, 198, 227, 259
property taxes, 233, 236-237, 238, 242, 247, 319-320
revenue raising, other, 5, 28-29, 53-55, 58, 79, 84, 233
guaranteed tax base, 59-60, 75, 80, 95-96
statistics by state, 30-31, 54-55
scale economies, 129-131
special education, 42-43, 225, 226
spending, 6, 30-32, 42, 46-47, 50, 88, 99, 105, 144, 225, 226
interdistrict disparities, 74, 77, 80, 83, 84, 85, 90, 92-99 (passim), 110, 196, 250-252, 257, 260, 265
state rewards/sanctions, 110, 156(n.6), 267
taxes, general, 248-249
see also "property taxes" supra
see also Local factors; Rural areas; Suburban areas; Urban areas
District power equalizing, 59, 75, 77, 84, 88, 96, 247, 253, 256-258 , 265
see also Guaranteed tax base
E
Early childhood interventions, 10, 82, 196, 202-206, 321
class size, 212
see also Compensatory education
East Jackson Public Schools v. State, 88
Econometric studies, 127-128
Economies of scale, see Scale economies
Edgewood v. Kirby, 80, 101, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112
Educational achievement, 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8-9, 17, 34-47
adequacy concept, 104, 105-106, 107-108, 114, 124, 131-132, 166, 265
attainment and, 36-38
cost-efficiency, 33, 34-44, 165-195
education production, 137, 142
facilities, schools, 200
historical perspectives, 7, 20-21, 24, 44, 46, 71-72
international comparisons, 18, 21, 34, 37-38, 44, 194, 230
parental choice and, 190-194
school incentives, impact on, 182-183
school-or site-based management, 185-186, 190
student background and, 2, 5, 10-11, 17, 19-20, 33, 43-53, 61, 67, 125, 134, 140, 196-231, 265
Coleman Report, 7, 24, 46, 71-72, 74, 82, 140-141, 142, 161
teacher capacity and pay, 167-176, 178
urban schools, 33
see also Test results
Educational attainment, 45-46
achievement and, 36-38
adequacy concept, 116
parents', 43-44
student background and, 5, 45-46
Educational technology, see Technology, educational
Education production, 2, 4, 9, 16, 65, 134-162
academic performance, 136-137, 142, 152-153
concept and measurement of, general, 135-139, 146
cost-efficiency, 4, 8-9, 17, 22-23, 33, 34, 38, 40, 87, 136, 163, 188, 247, 254-255
adequacy concept, 107-108, 116, 165
educational achievement and, 137, 142
education reform and, 135, 149-151, 154-161
effective educational practice, 147-153
equity, concept of, 70
facilities, schools, 200
historical perspectives, 134-135, 140, 149-151, 155, 161
inputs into education, 136, 137, 140-147, 161
institutional environment, 153-161
outcomes, educational, 135, 136, 140-147, 161
performance standards, 148, 156-157
private sector, 135, 137, 142, 160-161
research on, 138-161
school-based factors, individual schools, 132, 136-137, 141-143, 145, 147, 150-154, 155
teachers, 138, 140, 141-142, 144, 145-146, 149, 152, 155, 156, 159 , 173-174
Education reform, 3, 7, 8, 9, 12, 17-18, 24, 61, 62(n.9), 163, 164
adequacy concept, 110-111, 167
curriculum, 9, 15, 113, 123-124, 153, 155, 158
education production, 135, 149-151, 154-161
spending, general, 67, 68-100, 268
Title I, 215-216
whole-school designs, 114-115, 122, 123-124, 151, 153, 196, 213, 225
see also Adequacy, educational; Charter schools; Education standards; Equity concepts; Vouchers
Education standards, 1, 3, 9, 15, 18, 21, 156-157, 255
adequacy standards, 2, 6, 101-103 (passim), 107-108, 112-113
capacity investment and, 167
teacher certification, 106, 144, 168, 169, 170-171, 178, 210, 211, 255, 272
Title I programs, 216
see also Performance standards
Efficiency, 4, 8-9, 17, 22-23, 33, 34, 38, 40, 87, 107-108, 116, 136, 163, 165, 187, 191, 200, 232
adequacy concept, 107-108, 116, 165
educational achievement, 33, 34-44, 165-195
property taxes, 234-235, 236, 240-241
revenue raising, 33, 34, 51, 57, 232
teachers, cost-efficiency, 168-176
Employment
educational attainment and, 20, 34-35, 44
teachers
career ladders, 177
salaries, 8, 9, 39-40, 41, 94(n.12), 142, 165, 167-168, 169, 171-174 176-179, 197, 211, 272
training and professional development, 9, 142, 149, 150, 152, 156, 165, 167-168, 169, 174-176, 177, 183, 198, 210, 211, 216, 224, 225 , 270-272
English-language learners/second-language speakers, 33, 39, 49, 73 , 89, 125-128 (passim), 155, 187, 214, 221, 260
bilingual education, 82, 86-87
Enrollment factors, 27, 32-33, 36, 38, 41, 48, 135, 187, 191-192, 250-251
Equality of Educational Opportunity (Coleman Report), 7, 24, 46, 71-72, 74, 82, 140-141, 142, 161
Equal opportunity
adequacy concept, 104, 105-106, 110-111
bilingual education, 86-87
court cases, 6, 18, 68, 70, 82
equity concept, 68, 70, 82, 86-87
special-needs students, 41, 42, 86-87, 214, 218, 219(n.9), 220-221
Equal protection, 72-74, 76-81
Equity concepts, 16
adequacy vs, 101, 102, 103, 112, 131, 132-133, 264
concept of, 6, 67, 69-77, 165-166
court cases, 70-81, 90-91, 94, 95-101, 167
see also Serrano v. Priest
education production, 70
equal opportunity provisions, 68, 70, 82, 86-87
federal efforts, 82-87, 259-260
finance equity, general, 2, 7, 8, 61, 70-81, 83-100
interdistrict disparities, 11, 24, 29, 31, 46, 50, 74, 77, 80, 83, 84, 85, 90, 92-99 (passim), 110, 125, 128-129, 191, 196, 228, 231, 236-237, 247, 250-252, 257, 260, 265
district power equalizing, 59, 75, 77, 84, 88, 96, 247, 253, 256-258 , 265
intradistrict disparities, 6, 8, 11, 24, 29, 31, 99, 228-229, 231, 320
political factors, 70, 78, 96-97, 166, 197, 248-249, 253
research on, 74, 90-98, 319-320
spending, 67-100
see also Court cases
states
court cases, 70-81, 90-91, 94, 95-101, 167
see also Serrano v. Priest
disparities across, 6, 30-31, 47, 54-55, 69, 93, 94, 96, 97
taxpayers, 70, 71, 232, 236-237, 238, 240-241, 242, 247, 254
wealth-neutrality principle, 71-76, 77, 80, 81, 84-85, 88, 89, 90, 91, 95-99 (passim), 102, 103, 107, 109, 112, 125
see also Adequacy, educational
Ex ante concepts, 70, 71, 75, 96, 103
Ex post concepts, 70, 71, 89, 103
F
Facilities, schools, 82, 107, 108, 121, 140, 142, 167, 188, 197, 198, 199-201, 255
safety of school environment, 198, 208
special education, 225
see also Technology, educational
Family factors, 2, 10-11, 19, 43-44, 52-53
Coleman Report, 7, 71-72, 82, 140-141, 142
see also Parental factors
Federal government, 3, 82, 127
block grants, 83
categorical programs, 6, 10-11, 60, 81-82, 196, 214, 259-260
see also Title I programs
compensatory programs, 11-12, 27, 29, 46, 83, 204, 206
see also Title I programs
education production, 150, 156
equity provisions, 82-87, 259-260
revenue raising, general, 11, 27, 29, 53, 60-61, 258-262
statistics by state, 30-31
special education, 27, 41, 42, 43, 214, 218, 219(n.9), 220-221, 223 -225, 226, 260, 261
spending, general, 1, 5, 11-12, 16, 17, 60-61, 82, 83-85, 93, 97-98 , 197, 208, 260
annual, 1, 15, 27, 38, 39, 260
state cooperation with, general, 15, 16, 83-86, 261, 262, 316-317, 323-324
value-added taxes, 233
see also Legislation, federal; U.S. Constitution; main heads beginning "Department. . ."
Fiscal neutrality principle, see Wealth-neutrality principle
Florida, 57, 109, 129, 166, 224, 230, 321
Foreign countries, see International perspectives
Formulas for distributing funds, 10, 16, 31, 60, 85-86, 196, 197
adequacy concept, 103, 104, 124-133 (passim)
democratic threshold principle (Gutmann), 104, 105
distributive justice (Rawls), 103-104
district power equalizing, 59, 75, 77, 84, 88, 96, 247, 253, 256-258 , 265
expenditure-disparity test, 84-85
foundation aid, 12, 59, 88, 106, 119-120, 131, 257, 261
guaranteed tax base, 59-60, 75, 80, 95-96
special education, 221-222
wealth-neutrality principle, 59, 71-76, 77, 80, 81, 84-85, 88, 89, 90, 91, 95-99 (passim), 102, 103, 107, 109, 112, 125, 319-320
weights/weighting, students, 48, 86, 119, 125, 126-127, 128, 158, 224, 240, 249
Foundation aid, 12, 59, 88, 106, 119-120, 131, 257, 261
Foundations (private), grants from, 192, 207-209
G
Geographic factors
geographic uniformity principle, 74
interdistrict disparities, 11, 24, 29, 31, 46, 50, 77, 80, 83, 84, 85, 90, 92-99 (passim), 110, 125, 128-129, 191, 196, 228, 231, 236 -237, 247, 250-252, 260, 265
district power equalizing, 59, 75, 77, 84, 88, 96, 247, 253, 256-258 , 265
guaranteed, 59-60, 75, 80, 95-96
intradistrict disparities, 6, 8, 11, 24, 29, 31, 99, 228-229, 231, 320
teachers, regional distribution of, 169-170
see also Rural areas; Suburban areas; Urban areas; specific states
Gifted and talented programs, 82, 214
Guaranteed tax base, 59-60, 75, 80, 95-96
see also District power equalizing
H
Harper v. Hunt, 103
Hawaii, 29
Hispanics
educational attainment, 45
Horizontal equity, 90
I
Idaho, 78
Illinois, 74, 109, 119-120, 121, 122, 166, 241
Incentives, 3, 8, 9, 12, 16, 62, 85, 159, 164, 176-183, 195, 267
academic performance, general, 3, 8, 9, 62
categorical programs, 10-11, 60
private schools, 182-183
rewards/sanctions, 110, 156(n.6), 179, 182, 187, 267
special education, 222
teachers, see "incentives under Teachers/staff"
weighted-child formula, 86
Income taxes, 20, 57, 232, 239-241
federal provisions, 60, 233, 249
local, 239-241
parental income, impacts, 236
school-based factors, individual schools, 9, 156(n.6), 179-180, 182 -183
state, 54-57, 91, 233, 243-244, 247, 253-254
relief to poor, 91
statistics by state, 56-57
Individualized education programs, 41, 223, 224, 225
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 214, 218, 219(n.9), 220-221, 224, 225, 226, 260
consumer price index, 40, 41, 126
Inputs into education, 2, 6, 8, 167, 261, 319
adequacy concept, 102-103, 104, 119, 121, 124-125, 126, 128, 166, 264
adjustments for changes over time, 40
education production and, 136, 137, 140-147, 161
incentives, general, 180
inflation, 40, 41, 93, 94, 112, 126, 131
see also Cost of education; Facilities, schools; Spending on education; Technology, educational
curriculum, 9, 15, 113, 123-124, 153, 155, 158, 177, 183, 188, 223 , 224, 225, 226, 255
education production, 146
see also Cost of education; Teachers/staff
International perspectives, 18, 21, 34, 37-38, 44, 194, 230
J
Jackson v. Benson, 229
K
Kansas, 85
Kentucky, 54, 76, 80-81, 97, 101, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114 , 124, 175, 179, 181, 182
Kentucky Education Reform Act, 110, 207
L
Language issues, see English-language learners/second-language speakers
Lau v. Nichols, 86-87
Leandro v. State of North Carolina, 109
Legislation, federal
Americans with Disabilities Act, 218(n.8)
compulsory attendance, disabled children, 68
Educational for All Handicapped Children Act, 41, 42, 86
Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 207, 259, 260
see also Title I programs
Emergency School Assistance Act, 82
Goals 2000: Educate America Act, 15, 85
Government Performance and Results Act, 321
Improving America's Schools Act, 16, 207
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 214, 218, 219(n.9), 220-221, 224, 225, 226, 260
Vocational Rehabilitation Act, 218(n.)
Legislation, state
adequacy concept, 110-111, 112, 122, 130-131, 133, 166
constitutional requirements, 5, 6, 72-81 (passim), 88, 101, 107, 109, 133
property taxes, 250-251
vouchers, 229-230
see also Court cases
Litigation, see Court cases
committee mandate, 4
control of education, 20, 26, 28-32, 96-97, 158-159
funding responsibilities, 5
income taxes, 239-241
revenue raising, general, 11, 20, 27, 53, 58, 79
statistics by state, 30-31
see also Property taxes; Sales taxes
school-community linkages, 10, 152, 184-185, 196, 206-210
spending, 22-23, 27, 92, 93, 109, 256
see also Serrano v. Priest
taxes, general, 248-249
urban tax bases, 20, 76, 200, 259
see also District-level factors; School-based factors, individual schools
Longitudinal studies, 98, 143, 145, 146, 148, 216-217, 231, 256, 317, 321, 322
Lotteries, 245-246
M
Maryland, 243
Massachusetts, 57, 107, 108, 179, 224, 242, 245
McInnis v. Shapiro, 74
Michigan
desegregation, 82-83
district equalization, 88
impact aid, 85
revenue raising, 28-29, 57, 254
Milliken v. Bradley, 82-83, 88
Minnesota, 107, 110, 230, 242-243
Minority groups, 145
bilingual education, 82, 86-87
black persons, 18, 21, 43, 47-51, 68, 70, 91, 145
educational attainment, 45
equity, concept of, 70
spending disparities, 31, 47, 48-49, 273
teachers of minority students, 211
see also English-language learners/second-language speakers; Racial discrimination/segregation
Mississippi, 57, 120(n.9), 122
N
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 36-37, 45-46, 114, 157, 175
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 272
National Center for Education Statistics, 198, 315-325
academic performance data, 317-318
National Commission on Teaching and America's Future, 169
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 170
National Education Goals Panel, 157
A Nation at Risk, 34, 88, 134, 149
Nevada, 57
New American Schools, 123-124, 153
New Hampshire
adequacy of education, 107, 108, 109
New Jersey
adequacy concept, 107
technical assistance from federal government, 85
New Mexico
impact aid, 85
revenue raising, 29
New York City, 42, 128, 129, 152, 320
New York State
adequacy of education, 107, 108, 116, 128-129
enrollment, 33
special education spending, 42, 218
Non-English-speaking students, see English-language learners/second-language speakers
North Carolina, 59, 107, 109, 175, 179, 181, 183
North Dakota, 224
O
Obey-Porter, see Comprehensive School Reform Demonstration program
Ohio, 85, 107, 108-109, 111, 118-119, 120, 122, 229
Olsen v. State, 79
Outcomes, educational, 3, 16, 69, 70, 268
adequacy concept and, 2, 102, 117-120, 122, 166, 264
education production, 135, 136, 140-147, 161
property tax limitations, 241
research recommendations, 12
school-based accountability, 9, 190
state-role in financing, 241, 254-257
teacher salaries and, 172-173
Outputs of education, 69, 102-103, 119, 137, 159-160, 166, 264
see also Academic performance; Education production; Outcomes, educational
P
educational attainment of, 43-44
school/choice school spending decisions, 9, 11, 29, 62, 105, 164, 165, 183-184, 190-195, 196, 227-231
charter schools, 8, 9, 29, 133, 185, 186-188, 189, 190, 191-192, 229, 231
contract schools, 9, 124, 153, 188-189, 267
educational achievement of children and, 190-194
voucher programs, 9, 10, 11, 12, 133, 192, 194, 229-231, 269, 273274
spending on own children's education, 22
tax and parental income, 236
Pennsylvania, 54, 79, 86, 107, 113, 224
Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. Pennsylvania, 86
Performance standards, 16-17
adequacy concept, 110, 113, 115, 118-120, 122, 132, 166
education production, 148, 156-157
see also Test results
Per pupil spending, see Cost of education; Spending on education
Political factors, 3, 22-24, 157, 271
adequacy of education, 2, 103, 105, 110, 111, 112-113, 132, 133, 166
attacks on public schools, 20-21, 34, 38
equity, 70, 78, 96-97, 166, 197, 248-249, 253
federal role in education, 12
funding models, 16
public opinion, 18, 20-21, 34, 38, 44, 136, 263-264
school-level assessment, 320-321
spending on education, general, 2, 16, 70, 75, 78, 96-97
testing (NAEP), 37
wealth-neutrality principle, 75
see also Public opinion
Poverty, 3, 10, 18, 19, 43, 46, 97-98, 197, 210-214
adequacy concept, 103, 119-120, 125, 127, 128, 133, 198, 265
capacity investments, 167
compensatory education, 11-12, 27, 29, 46, 82, 83, 87, 202-206
see also Title I programs
cost of education of poor, 2, 198-199, 205, 259
early childhood interventions, 10, 82, 196, 202-206, 212
foundations (private), grants from, 192, 207-209
see also ''equity" supra
income taxes, state relief, 91
lotteries, 246
sales taxes, 244
school-based factors, high poverty, 46, 83
teaching capacity, 210-212
urban areas, 20, 47, 48-49, 51, 74, 76, 103, 198, 227, 259
voucher programs, 273-274
Preschool interventions, see Early childhood interventions
Private schools, 29, 82, 160, 178, 182, 184, 190
attitudes toward public schools, parents of children in private schools , 38
contract schools, 9, 124, 153, 185, 188-189, 267
foundations (private), grants from, 192, 207-209
incentives used in, 182-183
religious schools, 192, 193, 194, 229-230, 231
vouchers, 9, 10, 11, 12, 133, 192, 194, 229, 273-274
Private sector, 21, 182, 184, 188-189
education production, 135, 137, 142, 160-161
facilities, schools, 200
people with disabilities, 218
Project STAR, 145
Property taxes, 5, 20, 29, 53, 58, 59, 88, 91(n.8), 232-243, 247, 319-320
benefit-tax argument, 234-235
business property, 241-242
court cases, 71
district-level factors, 233, 236-237, 238, 242, 247, 319-320
efficiency considerations, 234-235, 236, 240-241
federal income taxes and, 60
guaranteed tax base, 59-60, 75, 80, 95-96
outcomes, educational, 241
state-level issues, 58, 88, 233, 235, 236, 237, 238, 241, 243, 245 , 246-247, 250-251, 253, 254, 255-256, 319-320
statistics by state, 54-55
tax capitalization, 236-237
Public opinion, 34, 44, 136, 263-264
attacks on public schools, 20-21, 34, 38
see also Political factors
R
Race/ethnicity, other, see Minority groups
Racial discrimination/segregation, 18, 19, 47-49, 82, 87, 99, 110, 227
Brown v. Board of Education, 6, 18, 68, 70, 82, 99, 100
Milliken v. Bradley, 82-83
Religious schools, 229-230, 231
Research, educational
adequacy concept, 102, 114-130
class size, 210-211, 212-213, 273
Coleman Report, 7, 24, 46, 71-72, 74, 82, 140-141, 142, 161
contract schools, 189
early childhood education, 203-206
education production, 138-161
equity concept, 74, 90-98, 319-320
facilities, schools, 200
foundations (private), grants from, 208-209
longitudinal, 98, 143, 145, 146, 148, 216-217, 231, 256, 317, 321, 322
parental choice, 192-194
qualitative studies, 139, 147-148
recommendations, 12, 198, 200, 204-205, 267-274, 315-325
school incentives, 182-183, 272-273
school-or site-based management, 186, 319
special education, 219-220, 221
state-role in financing, 241, 255-257
teachers, 171-177, 210-212, 222-223, 270-272
testing, 180-181
see also National Assessment of Educational Progress
Title I programs, 215, 216-217
vouchers, 230-231, 269, 273-274
whole-school designs, 213
see also Statistical analyses
Revenue for school finance, 2, 5, 15-16, 20, 48-49, 53-61, 232-262
California, 58, 71, 72-74, 76, 235, 236, 245, 249-253, 254, 255-256 , 258, 262
committee mandate, 4
district-level, 5, 28-29, 53-55, 58, 79, 84, 233
guaranteed tax base, 59-60, 75, 80, 95-96
statistics by state, 30-31, 54-55
see also Property taxes
efficiency issues, 33, 34, 51, 57, 232
fairness, 5, 11-12, 17, 33-34, 53-61, 232, 235-238, 247-248, 265-267
federal, general, 11, 27, 29, 53, 60-61, 258-262
statistics by state, 30-31
local, general, 11, 20, 27, 53, 58, 79
statistics by state, 30-31
see also Property taxes; Sales taxes; "district-level" supra
by socioeconomic status, 47, 48-49
state-level, general, 28-29, 54-57, 58, 71, 72-74, 76, 88, 197, 235 , 236, 239, 245-258, 262
statistics by state, 30-31, 54-55
see also Income taxes; Property taxes; Sales taxes; Taxes, general
Rhode Island, 54, 109-110, 166
Rodriguez v. Los Angeles Unified School District, 31, 82
Roosevelt Elementary School District v. Bishop, 108
Rose v. Council for Better Education, 81, 107
Rural areas, 33, 45-46, 48, 67-68, 70, 228
S
Safety of school environment, 198, 208
Sales taxes, 88, 232, 239-241, 243, 244-245, 246, 253-254
statistics by state, 56-57
Scale economies, 129-131
School-based factors, individual schools, 15, 21, 70, 319, 320-322
accountability, 9, 180-181, 182, 190, 320-321
adequacy, 102, 113, 118, 120(n.9), 130-131, 133
community-school linkages, 10, 152, 184-185, 196, 206-210
education production, 132, 136-137, 141-143, 145, 147, 150-154, 155
high-stakes testing, 180-181
incentives, 9, 156(n.6), 179-180, 182-183
intradistrict disparities, 6, 8, 11, 24, 29, 31, 99, 228-229, 231, 265, 320
performance, 6, 7, 10, 12, 24, 132, 136-137, 145, 317-318
political factors, 320-321
rewards/sanctions, 156(n.6), 179, 182, 187, 267
spending, decision making, 3, 8, 11, 62, 105, 164, 183-190, 196, 227-231
charter schools, 8, 9, 29, 133, 185, 186-188, 189, 190, 191-192, 229, 231
contract schools, 9, 124, 153, 188-189, 267
vouchers, 9, 10, 11, 12, 133, 192, 194, 229-231, 269, 273-274
whole-school designs, 114-115, 122, 123-124, 151, 153, 196, 213, 225
School districts, see District-level factors
School-or site-based management (SBM), 9, 151-152, 157, 178, 185-186 , 319
educational achievement and, 185-186, 190
Seattle v. State of Washington, 77, 78
Serrano v. Priest, 71, 72-74, 76, 77, 79, 80, 87, 96, 250-253, 256 , 258, 318
Simmons-Harris v. Goff, 229
Social factors, general, 18-19, 24, 67, 208
attacks on public schools, 20-21, 34, 38
early childhood education, 204
out-of-class learning, 168, 208
school-community linkages, 10, 152, 184-185, 196, 206-210
see also Demographic factors; Family factors; Parental factors; Political factors; Public opinion; Race, spending on education by; Racial discrimination/segregation
Socioeconomic factors, 1-2, 4, 6, 67-68
adequacy of education, 102, 103, 107, 109, 112, 115, 118, 120, 125
costs of education, 115, 118, 120
out-of-class learning, 168
revenue raising by socioeconomic status, general, 47, 48-49
student background and achievement, 2, 5, 10-11, 17, 19-20, 33, 43 -53, 61, 67, 125, 134, 140, 196-231, 265
Coleman Report, 7, 24, 46, 71-72, 74, 82, 140-141, 142, 161
tax and parental income, 236
tax deductions, 60-61
test scores, 46
urban areas, general, 68
wealth-neutrality principle, 59, 71-76, 77, 80, 81, 84-85, 88, 89, 90, 91, 95-99 (passim), 102, 103, 107, 109, 112, 125, 319-320
see also Poverty
South Dakota, 85
Special education, 41-43, 82, 126-127, 196, 217-227
costs of, 41-42, 217, 219, 222, 227
curriculum issues, 223, 224, 225, 226
district-level factors, 42-43, 225, 226
facilities, 225
federal government, 27, 41, 42, 43, 214, 218, 219(n.9), 220-221, 223-225, 226, 260, 261
formulas for distributing funds, 221-222
incentives, 222
individualized education programs, 41, 223, 224, 225
spending, 6, 41-42, 217-218, 219, 221-222, 223-226
state-level factors, 42, 43, 218, 219, 223-224, 225, 226, 227
urban areas, 219
Special-needs students, 20, 39, 68, 73, 259, 269
adequacy concept, 110-111, 127, 265
class size, 212
community-school linkages, 206-210
equal opportunity provisions, 41, 42, 86-87, 214, 218, 219(n.9), 220-221
gifted and talented programs, 82, 214
litigation, 86-87
testing, 211
vouchers, 274
see also Categorical programs; English-language learners/second-language speakers; Poverty; Special education; Students with disabilities
Spending on education, 1, 3, 4, 16, 18, 20, 27, 38-44, 67-100, 265 -267
district-level, 6, 30-32, 42, 46-47, 50, 88, 99, 105, 144, 225, 226
district power equalizing, 59, 75, 77, 84, 88, 96, 247, 253, 256, 257-258, 265
early childhood education, 201, 204-205
education reform, general, 67, 68-100, 268
facilities, 82, 107, 108, 121, 140, 142, 167, 188, 197, 198, 199-201 , 208, 225, 255
federal, general, 1, 5, 11-12, 16, 17, 60-61, 82, 83-85, 93, 97-98 , 197, 208, 260
annual, 1, 15, 27, 38, 39, 260
foundations (private), grants from, 192, 207-209
interdistrict disparities, 11, 24, 29, 31, 46, 50, 74, 77, 80, 83, 84, 85, 90, 92-99 (passim), 110, 125, 128-129, 191, 196, 228, 231, 236-237, 247, 250-252, 257, 260, 265
district power equalizing, 59, 75, 77, 84, 88, 96, 247, 253, 256-258 , 265
local, 22-23, 27, 92, 93, 109, 256
see also Serrano v. Priest; "district-level" supra
political factors, 2, 16, 70, 75, 78, 96-97
racially based spending disparities, 31, 47, 48-49, 273
school-and parent-based decision making spending, 3, 8, 11, 62, 105 , 164, 183-190, 196, 227-231
charter schools, 8, 9, 29, 133, 185, 186-188, 189, 190, 191-192, 229, 231
contract schools, 9, 124, 153, 188-189, 267
vouchers, 9, 10, 11, 12, 133, 192, 194, 229-231, 269, 273-274
special education, 6, 41-42, 217-218, 219, 221-222, 223-226
technology, 8, 142, 147, 167, 197, 199, 201-202
Title I, 216-217
urban areas, 47, 48-52, 67-68, 76, 219, 227-228
see also Adequacy, educational; Cost indices; Cost of education; Equity concepts; Formulas for distributing funds
Standards, see Education standards
State government, 4
accountability legislation, 110, 111
adequacy of education, 6, 80, 101-102, 103, 105, 107-111, 112, 114 -131 (passim), 133, 166
court decisions, 6, 80, 101-102, 103, 106, 107-112, 122, 132-133, 166, 167
legislation, 110-111, 112, 122, 130-131, 133, 166
categorical programs, 6, 10-11, 81-82
compensatory education, 27, 87
constitutional requirements, 5, 6, 72-81 (passim), 88, 101, 107, 109, 133
disparities across states, 6, 30-31, 47, 54-55, 69, 93, 94, 96, 97
district power equalizing, 59, 75, 77, 84, 88, 96, 247, 253, 256258, 265
districts, aid to, 29, 53, 59-60, 92
guaranteed tax base, 59-60, 75, 80, 95-96
districts, rewards/sanctions, 110, 156(n.6), 267
education production, 156, 157-158
equal opportunity, court cases, 6, 18, 68, 70, 82
equal protection, 72-74, 76-81
equity concept
court cases, 70-81, 90-91, 94, 95-101, 167
see also Serrano v. Priest
disparities across, 6, 30-31, 47, 54-55, 69, 93, 94, 96, 97
federal cooperation with, general, 15, 16, 83-86, 261, 262, 316-317 , 323-324
foundation aid, 59, 88, 106, 119-120, 131, 257
funding responsibilities, 5, 17, 72-82 (passim)
income taxes, 54-57, 91, 233, 243-244, 247, 253-254
relief to poor, 91
statistics by state, 56-57
lotteries, 245-246
NCES core data, 316-317, 323-324
outcomes of education, role in financing, 241, 254-257
property taxes, 58, 88, 233, 235, 236, 237, 238, 241, 243, 245, 246 -247, 250-251, 253, 254, 255-256, 319-320
statistics by state, 54-55
research financing, state role, 241, 255-257
revenue raising, general, 11, 27, 28-29, 53-60, 71, 72-74, 76, 79, 88, 91, 111, 197, 235, 236, 239, 245-258, 262
statistics by state, 30-31, 54-55
sales taxes, 54-57, 233, 243, 244-245, 246, 253-254
statistics by state, 56-57
special education, 42, 43, 218, 219, 223-224, 225, 226, 227
spending, 27, 29-32, 42, 46, 47, 52, 69-82, 90-91, 93, 94, 96, 97, 199, 200, 219, 223-224, 225, 226, 227, 249-252, 257
taxes, 54-57, 58, 88, 197, 247-258
nontax revenue sources, 245-246
see also specific tax types supra
certification, 106, 144, 168, 169, 170-171, 178, 210, 255, 272
vouchers, 229-230
see also Court cases; Legislation, state; specific states
Statistical analyses
adequacy of education, costs, 114, 115-118
Coleman Report, 7, 24, 46, 71-72, 74, 82, 140-141, 142, 161
education production, 140-147
NAEP, 37
Students with disabilities, 39, 41-43, 68
Americans with Disabilities Act, 218(n.8)
compulsory attendance, 68
equity, concept of, 70, 73, 89, 127, 128
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 214, 218, 219(n.9), 220-221, 224, 225, 226, 260
litigation, 86-87
private sector, 218
see also Special education
Student/teacher ratios, 42, 88, 106, 118, 141-142, 144, 203
see also Class size
Suburban areas, 48-49, 51, 228
property tax, 234
urban/suburban disparities, 11, 20, 33, 46, 47, 48-49, 51-52, 76, 94(n.12), 227, 228-229
voucher programs, 273
T
Taxes, general, 53, 90-91, 96, 232
district-and local-level, 248-249
equity considerations, 70, 71, 232, 236-237, 238, 240-241, 242, 247 , 254
state, 54-57, 58, 88, 197, 247-258
nontax revenue sources, 245-246
urban tax bases, 20, 76, 200, 259
value-added taxes, 233
see also Guaranteed tax base; Income taxes; Property taxes; Sales taxes
Teachers/staff
accountability, 165, 224, 272-273
capacity building, general, 12, 150, 165, 167-176, 210-213, 267, 270-272, 321
career ladders, 177
certification of teachers, 106, 144, 168, 169, 170-171, 178, 210, 211, 255, 272
competency pay, 178
cost-efficiency, 168-176
of disadvantaged students, 10, 210-212
early childhood education, 203-204
education achievement, teacher capacity and pay factors, 167-176, 178
education production, 138, 140, 141-142, 144, 145-146, 149, 152, 155, 156, 159, 173-174
education standards, other, 271, 272-273
see also "certification" supra
gender differences, salaries, 171-172
incentives, 12, 165, 176-179, 195
see also "salaries" infra
merit pay, 177
of minority students, 211
regional distribution of, 169-170
research on, 171-177, 210-212, 222-223, 270-272
salaries, 8, 9, 39-40, 41, 94(n.12), 142, 165, 167-168, 169, 171-174 , 176-179, 197, 211, 272
school-based reform, 152
see also "certification" supra
state government role, 175, 179, 181, 183
see also "certification" supra
student/teacher ratios, 42, 88, 106, 118, 141-142, 144, 203
see also Class size
testing of, 211
see also "certification" supra
Title I programs, 216
training and professional development, 9, 142, 149, 150, 152, 156, 165, 167-168, 169, 174-176, 177, 183, 198, 210, 211, 216, 224, 225 , 270-272
Technical assistance, federal
desegregation, 62
state financial laws, 85
Technology, educational, 8, 142, 147, 167, 197, 199, 201-202
Tennessee Small School Systems v. McWherter, 108
Test results, 34, 36-37, 43-44
accountability, high-stakes testing, 180-182, 183
adequacy concept, 113-117 (passim), 120
black students, 45-46
contract schools, 189
disadvantaged students, 211
education production, 145, 149
NAEP, 36-37, 45-46, 114, 157, 175
political factors (NAEP), 37
research, 180-181
see also National Assessment of Educational Progress
school-based factors, individual schools, 180-181
spending disparities and, 47
urban students, 45-46
Texas, 72, 80, 85, 88, 97, 122, 144, 145, 179, 183, 210-211, 212
Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), 37-38
Thompson v Engelking, 78-79
Title I programs, 10-11, 27, 29, 46, 83, 84, 86, 127, 181, 213, 214 -217, 260, 318
U
Urban areas, 3, 5, 10, 11, 32-33, 47-52, 67-68, 99, 227-231
adequacy concept, 103, 111, 128
bureaucracy, 18
cost of education, other, 52, 198, 199-200
education reform, 3, 10, 11, 228
facilities, schools, 199
foundations (private), grants from, 207-209
minority groups in, 18, 47-51, 70
political factors, 18, 228, 271
poverty, 20, 47, 48-49, 51, 74, 76, 103, 198, 227, 259
research recommendations, 12, 267-270
special education, 219
spending, 47, 48-51, 67-68, 76, 219, 227-228
suburban/urban disparities, 11, 20, 33, 46, 47, 48-49, 51-52, 76, 94(n.12), 227, 228-229
test scores, 45-46
voucher programs, 12
U.S. Constitution, 5, 16, 26, 58, 72, 73-75, 77, 78, 82, 86, 229, 230
V
Value-added taxes, 233
Vermont
revenue raising, 54
special education, 224
Vouchers, 9, 10, 11, 12, 133, 192, 194, 229-231, 269, 273-274
W
Washakie v. Herschler, 109
Washington State, 57, 77, 78, 90, 107, 114, 169, 251
Wealth-neutrality principle, 59
adequacy concept and, 102, 103, 107, 109, 112, 125, 319-320
equity concept and, 71-76, 77, 80, 81, 84-85, 88, 89, 90, 91, 95-99 (passim), 102, 103, 107, 109, 112, 125
Weights/weighting, students, 48, 86, 119, 125, 126-127, 128, 158, 224, 240, 249
West Virginia, 73, 78, 107, 114
Whole-school designs, 114-115, 122, 123-124, 151, 153, 196, 213, 225