imposed; Blacks reflect the highest support for residence in integrated neighborhoods (Bobo and Zubrinsky, 1996). Available evidence suggests, however, that instead of greater ethnic diversity leading to greater acceptance of Blacks as neighbors, greater diversity adds to the climate of resistance toward Blacks. One Los Angeles study found that Hispanics were as hostile as Whites to Black neighbors, while Asians were more hostile than Whites (Bobo and Zubrinsky, 1996).

2. The 1990 General Social Survey (see Table 14–14) indicated that, although Whites tend to view all minority populations more negatively than they view other Whites, Blacks tended to be viewed more negatively than other minority groups. A key characteristic of racial prejudice has been an explicit desire to maintain social distance from defined outgroups; and with 25 to 44 percent of Hispanics and 25 to 50 percent of Asian or Pacific Islander subgroups marrying persons of other races (primarily White) (Rumbaut, 1994), the future trend is that Blacks are likely to be further marginalized. However, rates of Black-White intermarriage have been increasing in recent years—6 percent in 1990 compared to 2 percent in 1970.

3. Data from around the world indicate that in virtually all cultures, the color black is associated with negative attributes (Franklin, 1968), and Blacks are darker in skin color than any other racial group. National data on Blacks reveal that skin color is a stronger predictor of adult occupation and income than is parental socioeconomic status (Keith and Herring, 1991). National data on Mexicans reveal that those who were darker in skin color and more Indian in appearance experienced higher levels of discrimination than those who were lighter in skin color and more European in appearance (Arce et al., 1987). Similarly, studies of Sephardic Jews in the United States, Israel, and Australia reveal that they experience higher levels of discrimination than their lighter-skinned peers (Rosen, 1982; Kraus and Koresh, 1992; Gale, 1994). Some research also suggests that darker skin color predicts higher levels of morbidity among Blacks (Klag et al., 1991; Dressler, 1996). Thus, although many groups have suffered and continue to experience prejudice and discrimination in the United States, Blacks have always been at the bottom of the racial hierarchy; and the social stigma associated with this group is probably greatest. The resultant unique challenges to socioeconomic mobility and, thus, health status, are likely to persist.

This chapter documents that there is a complex but persistent pattern of racial differences in health. On virtually all indicators of physical health status, at least one racial minority population experiences worse