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To Err Is Human: Building a Safer Health System (2000)
Institute of Medicine (IOM)

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cal Injuries in Utah and Colorado. Inquiry. 36:255–264, 1999. See also: Leape, et al., 1991. Brennan, et al., 1991.

3. American Hospital Association. Hospital Statistics. Chicago. 1999.

4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (National Center for Health Statistics). Deaths: Final Data for 1997. National Vital Statistics Reports. 47(19):27, 1999.

5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (National Center for Health Statistics). Births and Deaths: Preliminary Data for 1998. National Vital Statistics Reports. 47(25):6, 1999.

6. Thomas, et al., 1999.

7. Thomas, et al., 1999.

8. Thomas, et al., 1999.

9. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. The New OSHA: Reinventing Worker Safety and Health [Web Page]. Dec. 16, 1998. Available at: www.osha.gov/oshinfo/reinvent.html.

10. Bureau of Labor Statistics. National Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries, 1998. U.S. Department of Labor: Washington, D.C. August 1999.

11. Phillips, David P.; Christenfeld, Nicholas; Glynn, Laura M. Increase in US Medication-Error Deaths between 1983 and 1993. Lancet. 351:643–644, 1998.

12. Bates, David W.; Spell, Nathan; Cullen, David J., et al. The Costs of Adverse Drug Events in Hospitalized Patients. JAMA. 277:307–311, 1997.

13. National Wholesale Druggists' Association. Industry Profile and Healthcare Factbook. Reston, VA: 1998.

14. Hallas, Jesper; Haghfelt, Torben; Gram, Lars F., et al. Drug Related Admissions to a Cardiology Department: Frequency and Avoidability. J Intern Med. 228:379–384, 1990.

15. Willcox, Sharon M.; Himmelstein, David U.; Woolhandler, Steffie. Inappropriate Drug Prescribing for the Community Dwelling Elderly. JAMA. 272:292, 1994.

16. Knox, Richard. Prescription Errors Tied to Lack of Advice: Pharmacists Skirting Law, Massachusetts Study Finds. Boston Globe. February 10, 1999:(Metro);B1.

17. Einarson, Thomas R. Drug-Related Hospital Admissions. Ann Pharmacother. 27:832–840, 1993.

18. Reason, James T. Human Error. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press; 1990.

19. Brennan, et al., 1991.

20. Leape, et al., 1991. See also Brennan, et al., 1991.

21. Leape, et al., 1991.

22. Manasse, Henri R. Jr. Medication Use in an Imperfect World: Drug Misadventuring as an Issue of Public Policy, part 1. Am J Hosp Pharm. 46:929–944, 1989.

23. Johnson, Jeffrey A., and Bootman, J. Lyle. Drug-Related Morbidity and Mortality: A Cost-of-Illness Model. Arch Intern Med. 155(18):1949–1956, 1995.

24. Victoroff, Michael S. The Right Intentions: Errors and Accountability. J Fam Pract. 45:38–39, 1997.

25. Andrews, Lori B.; Stocking, Carol; Krizek, Thomas, et al. An Alternative Strategy for Studying Adverse Events in Medical Care. Lancet. 349:309–313, 1997.

26. Vincent, Charles; Taylor-Adams, Sally and Stanhope, Nicole. Framework for Analysing Risk and Safety in Clinical Medicine. BMJ. 316(11): 1154–1157, 1998.

27. Cook, Richard and Woods, David. Operating at the Sharp End: the Complexity

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