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Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences (2001)

Chapter: 7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research

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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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Suggested Citation:"7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9838.
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7 Evaluating and Disseminating Intervention Research E fforts to change health behaviors should be guided by clear criteria of efficacy and effectiveness of the interventions. However, this has proved surprisingly complex and is the source of considerable de- bate. The principles of science-based interventions cannot be overempha- sized. Medical practices and community-based programs are often based on professional consensus rather than evidence. The efficacy of interven- tions can only be determined by appropriately designed empirical studies. Randomized clinical trials provide the most convincing evidence, but may not be suitable for examining all of the factors and interactions addressed in this report. Information about efficacious interventions needs to be disseminated to practitioners. Furthermore, feedback is needed from practitioners to determine the overall effectiveness of interventions in real-life settings. Information from physicians, community leaders, public health officials, and patients are all-important for determining the overall effectiveness of interventions. The preceding chapters review contemporary research on health and behavior from the broad perspectives of the biological, behavioral, and social sciences. A recurrent theme is that continued multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary efforts are needed. Enough research evidence has accu- mulated to warrant wider application of this information. To extend its 274

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 275 use, however, existing knowledge must be evaluated and disseminated. This chapter addresses the complex relationship between research and application. The challenge of bridging research and practice is discussed with respect to clinical interventions, communities, public agencies, sys- tems of health care delivery, and patients. During the early 1980s, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Insti- tute (NHLBI) and the National Cancer Institute (NCI) suggested a se- quence of research phases for the development of programs that were ef- fective in modifying behavior (Greenwald, 1984; Greenwald and Cullen, 1984; NHLBI, 1983): hypothesis generation (phase I), intervention meth- ods development (phase II), controlled intervention trials (phase III), studies in defined populations (phase IV), and demonstration research (phase V). Those phases reflect the importance of methods development in providing a basis for large-scale trials and the need for studies of the dissemination and diffusion process as a means of identifying effective application strategies. A range of research and evaluation methods are required to address diverse needs for scientific rigor, appropriateness and benefit to the communities involved, relevance to research questions, and flexibility in cost and setting. Inclusion of the full range of phases from hypothesis generation to demonstration research should facilitate devel- opment of a more balanced perspective on the value of behavioral and psychosocial interventions. EVALUATING INTERVENTIONS Assessing Outcomes Choice of Outcome Measures The goals of health care are to increase life expectancy and improve health-related quality of life. Major clinical trials in medicine have evolved toward the documentation of those outcomes. As more trials documented effects on total mortality, some surprising results emerged. For example, studies commonly report that, compared with placebo, lipid- lowering agents reduce total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cho- lesterol, and might increase high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, thereby reducing the risk of death from coronary heart disease (Frick et al., 1987; Lipid Research Clinics Program, 1984). Those trials usually were not asso- ciated with reductions in death from all causes (Golomb, 1998; Muldoon

276 HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR et al., 1990). Similarly, He et al. (1999) demonstrated that intake of di- etary sodium in overweight people was not related to the incidence of coronary heart disease but was associated with mortality form coronary heart disease. Another example can be found in the treatment of cardiac arrhythmia. Among adults who previously suffered a myocardial infarc- tion, symptomatic cardiac arrhythmia is a risk factor for sudden death (Bigger, 1984). However, a randomized drug trial in 1455 post-infarction patients demonstrated that those who were randomly assigned to take an anti-arrhythmia drug showed reduced arrhythmia, but were significantly more likely to die from arrhythmia and from all causes than those assigned to take a placebo. If investigators had measured only heart rhythm changes, they would have concluded that the drug was beneficial. Only when primary health outcomes were considered was it established that the drug was dangerous (Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) Investigators, 1989). Many behavioral intervention trials document the capacity of inter- ventions to modify risk factors (NHLBI, 1998), but relatively few Level I studies measured outcomes of life expectancy and quality of life. As the examples above point out, assessing risk factors may not be adequate. Ramifications of interventions are not always apparent until they are fully evaluated. It is possible that a recommendation for a behavioral change could increase mortality through unforeseen consequences. For example, a recommendation of increased exercise might heighten the incidence of roadside auto fatalities. Although risk factor modification is expected to improve outcomes, assessment of increased longevity is essential. Mea- surement of mortality as an endpoint does necessitate long-duration trials that can incur greater costs. Outcome Measurement One approach to representing outcomes comprehensively is the qual- ity-adjusted life year (QALY). QALY is a measure of life expectancy (Gold et al., 1996; Kaplan and Anderson, 1996) that integrates mortality and morbidity in terms of equivalents of well-years of life. If a woman ex- pected to live to age 75 dies of lung cancer at 50, the disease caused 25 lost life-years. If 100 women with life expectancies of 75 die at age 50, 2,500 (100 × 25 years) life-years would be lost. But death is not the only out- come of concern. Many adults suffer from diseases that leave them more or less disabled for long periods. Although still alive, their quality of life is

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 277 diminished. QALYs account for the quality-of-life consequences of ill- nesses. For example, a disease that reduces quality by one-half reduces QALY by 0.5 during each year the patient suffers. If the disease affects 2 people, it will reduce QALY by 1 (2 × 0.5) each year. A pharmaceutical treatment that improves life by 0.2 QALYs for 5 people will result in the equivalent of 1 QALY if the benefit is maintained over a 1-year period. The basic assumption is that 2 years scored as 0.5 each add to the equiva- lent of 1 year of complete wellness. Similarly, 4 years scored as 0.25 each are equivalent to 1 year of complete wellness. A treatment that boosts a patient’s health from 0.50 to 0.75 on a scale ranging from 0.0 (for death) to 1.0 (for the highest level of wellness) adds the equivalent of 0.25 QALY. If the treatment is applied to 4 patients, and the duration of its effect is 1 year, the effect of the treatment would be equivalent to 1 year of complete wellness. This approach has the advantage of considering benefits and side-effects of treatment programs in a common term. Although QALYs typically are used to assess effects on patients, they also can be used as a measure of effect on others, including caregivers who are placed at risk because their experience is stressful. Most important, QALYs are required for many methods of cost-effectiveness analysis.The most controversial aspect of the methodology is the method for assigning values along the scale. Three methods are commonly used: standard reference gamble, time-tradeoff, and rating scales. Economists and psychologists differ on their preferred approach to preference assessment. Economists typically prefer the standard gamble because it is consistent with the axioms of choice outlined in decision theory (Torrence, 1976). Economists also ac- cept time-tradeoff because it represents choice even though it is not ex- actly consistent with the axioms derived from theory (Bennett and Torrence, 1996). However, evidence from experimental studies questions many of the assumptions that underlie economic models of choice. In particular, human evaluators do poorly at integrating complex probability information when making decisions involving risk (Tversky and Fox, 1995). Economic models often assume that choice is rational. However, psychological experiments suggest that methods commonly used for choice studies do not represent the true underlying preference continuum (Zhu and Anderson, 1991). Some evidence supports the use of simple rating scales (Anderson and Zalinski, 1990). Recently, research by economists has attempted to integrate studies from cognitive science, while psycholo- gists have begun investigations of choice and decision-making (Tversky and Shafir, 1992). A significant body of studies demonstrates that differ-

278 HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR ent methods for estimating preferences will produce different values (Lenert and Kaplan, 2000). This happens because the methods ask differ- ent questions. More research is needed to clarify the best method for valu- ing health states. The weighting used for quality adjustment comes from surveys of pa- tient or population groups, an aspect of the method that has generated considerable discussion among methodologists and ethicists (Kaplan, 1994). Preference weights are typically obtained by asking patients or people randomly selected from a community to rate cases that describe people in various states of wellness. The cases usually describe level of functioning and symptoms. Although some studies show small but signifi- cant differences in preference ratings between demographic groups (Kaplan, 1998), most studies have shown a high degree of similarity in preferences (see Kaplan, 1994, for review). A panel convened by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services reviewed methodologic issues relevant to cost and utility analysis (the formal name for this approach) in health care. The panel concluded that population averages rather than patient group preference weights are more appropriate for policy analysis (Gold et al., 1996). Several authors have argued that resource allocation on the basis of QALYs is unethical (see La Puma and Lawlor, 1990). Those who reject the use of QALY suggest that QALY cannot be measured. However, the reliability and validity of quality-of-life measures are well documented (Spilker, 1996). Another ethical challenge to QALYs is that they force health care providers to make decisions based on cost-effectiveness rather than on the health of the individual patient. Another common criticism of QALYs is that they discriminate against the elderly and the disabled. Older people and those with disabilities have lower QALYs, so it is assumed that fewer services will be provided to them. However, QALYs consider the increment in benefit, not the starting point. Programs that prevent the decline of health status or programs that pre- vent deterioration and functioning among the disabled do perform well in QALY outcome analysis. It is likely that QALYs will not reveal benefits for heroic care at the very end of life. However, most people prefer not to take treatment that is unlikely to increase life expectancy or improve qual- ity of life (Schneiderman et al., 1992). Ethical issues relevant to the use of cost-effectiveness analysis are considered in detail in the report of the Panel on Cost-Effectiveness in Health and Medicine (Gold et al., 1996).

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 279 Evaluating Clinical Interventions Behavioral interventions have been used to modify behaviors that put people at risk for disease, to manage disease processes, and to help patients cope with their health conditions. Behavioral and psychosocial interven- tions take many forms. Some provide knowledge or persuasive informa- tion; others involve individual, family, group, or community programs to change or support changes in health behaviors (such as in tobacco use, physical activity, or diet); still others involve patient or health care pro- vider education to stimulate behavior change or risk-avoidance. Behav- ioral and psychosocial interventions are not without consequence for pa- tients and their families, friends, and acquaintances; interventions cost money, take time, and are not always enjoyable. Justification for interven- tions requires assurance that the changes advocated are valuable. The kinds of evidence required to evaluate the benefits of interventions are discussed below. Evidence-Based Medicine Evidence-based medicine uses the best available scientific evidence to inform decisions about what treatments individual patients should re- ceive (Sackett et al., 1997). Not all studies are equally credible. Last (1995) offered a hierarchy of clinical research evidence, shown in Table 7-1. Level I, the most rigorous, is reserved for the randomized clinical trials (RCT), in which participants are randomly assigned to the experi- mental condition or to a meaningful comparison condition—the most widely accepted standard for evaluating interventions. Such trials involve TABLE 7-1 Research Evidence Hierarchy Level Element I. Randomized controlled trial II. Controlled trial without randomization Cohort or case control analytic study Multiple time series Uncontrolled experiment with dramatic results III. Case study Expert opinion SOURCE: Last, 1995, by permission of Lancet Ltd. All rights reserved.

280 HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR either “single blinding” (investigators know which participants are as- signed to the treatment and groups but participants do not) or “double blinding” (neither the investigators nor the participants know the group assignments) (Friedman et al., 1985). Double blinding is difficult in be- havioral intervention trials, but there are some good examples of single- blind experiments. Reviews of the literature often grade studies according to levels of evidence. Level I evidence is considered more credible than Level II evidence; Level III evidence is given little weight. There has been concern about the generalizability of RCTs (Feinstien and Horwitz, 1997; Horwitz, 1987a,b; Horwitz and Daniels, 1996; Horwitz et al., 1996, 1990; Rabeneck et al., 1992), specifically because the recruit- ment of participants can result in samples that are not representative of the population (Seligman, 1996). There is a trend toward increased het- erogeneity of the patient population in RCTs. Even so, RCTs often in- clude stringent criteria for participation that can exclude participants on the basis of comorbid conditions or other characteristics that occur fre- quently in the population. Furthermore, RCTs are often conducted in spe- cialized settings, such as university-based teaching hospitals, that do not draw representative population samples. Trials sometimes exhibit large dropout rates, which further undermine the generalizability of their find- ings. Oldenburg and colleagues (1999) reviewed all papers published in 1994 in 12 selected journals on public health, preventive medicine, health behavior, and health promotion and education. They graded the studies according to evidence level: 2% were Level I RCTs and 48% were Level II. The authors expressed concern that behavioral research might not be credible when evaluated against systematic experimental trials, which are more common in other fields of medicine. Studies with more rigorous experimental designs are less likely to demonstrate treatment effective- ness (Heaney and Goetzel, 1997; Mosteller and Colditz, 1996). Although there have been relatively few behavioral intervention trials, those that have been published have supported the efficacy of behavioral interven- tions in a variety of circumstances, including smoking, chronic pain, can- cer care, and bulimia nervosa (Compas et al., 1998). Efficacy and Effectiveness Efficacy is the capacity of an intervention to work under controlled conditions. Randomized clinical trials are essential in establishing the ef-

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 281 fects of a clinical intervention (Chambless and Hollon, 1998) and in de- termining that an intervention can work. However, demonstration of effi- cacy in an RCT does not guarantee that the treatment will be effective in actual practice settings. For example, some reviews suggest that behav- ioral interventions in psychotherapy are generally beneficial (Matt and Navarro, 1997), others suggest that interventions are less effective in clini- cal settings than in the laboratory (Weisz et al., 1992), and others find particular interventions equally effective in experimental and clinical set- tings (Shadish et al., 1997). The Division of Clinical Psychology of the American Psychological Association recently established criteria for “empirically supported” psy- chological treatments (Chambless and Hollon, 1998). In an effort to es- tablish a level of excellence in validating the efficacy of psychological interventions the criteria are relatively stringent. A treatment is consid- ered empirically supported if it is found to be more effective than either an alternative form of treatment or a credible control condition in at least two RCTs. The effects must be replicated by at least two independent laboratories or investigative teams to ensure that the effects are not attrib- utable to special characteristics of a specific investigator or setting. Sev- eral health-related behavior change interventions meeting those criteria have been identified, including interventions for management of chronic pain, smoking cessation, adaptation to cancer, and treatment of eating disorders (Compas et al., 1998). An intervention that has failed to meet the criteria still has potential value and might represent important or even landmark progress in the field of health-related behavior change. As in many fields of health care, there historically has been little effort to set standards for psychological treatments for health-related problems or disease. Recently, however, man- aged-care and health maintenance organizations have begun to monitor and regulate both the type and the duration of psychological treatments that are reimbursed. A common set of criteria for making coverage deci- sions has not been articulated, so decisions are made in the absence of appropriate scientific data to support them. It is in the best interest of the public and those involved in the development and delivery of health- related behavior change interventions to establish criteria that are based on the best available scientific evidence. Criteria for empirically supported treatments are an important part of that effort.

282 HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR Evaluating Community-Level Interventions Evaluating the effectiveness of interventions in the communities re- quires different methods. Developing and testing interventions that take a more comprehensive, ecologic approach, and that are effective in reduc- ing risk-related behaviors and influencing the social factors associated with health status, require many levels and types of research (Flay, 1986; Green et al., 1995; Greenwald and Cullen, 1984). Questions have been raised about the appropriateness of RCTs for addressing research questions when the unit of analysis is larger than the individual, such as a group, organiza- tion, or community (McKinlay, 1993; Susser, 1995). While this discussion uses the community as the unit of analysis, similar principles apply to interventions aimed at groups, families, or organizations. Review criteria of community interventions have been suggested by Hancock and colleagues (Hancock et al., 1997). Their criteria for rigor- ous scientific evaluation of community intervention trials include four domains: (1) design, including the randomization of communities to con- dition, and the use of sampling methods that assure representativeness of the entire population; (2) measures, including the use of outcome mea- sures with demonstrated validity and reliability and process measures that describe the extent to which the intervention was delivered to the target audience; (3) analysis, including consideration of both individual varia- tion within each community and community-level variation within each treatment condition; and (4) specification of the intervention in enough detail to allow replication. Randomization of communities to various conditions raises challenges for intervention research in terms of expense and statistical power (Koepsell et al., 1995; Murray, 1995). The restricted hypotheses that RCTs test cannot adequately consider the complexities and multiple causes of human behavior and health status embedded within communities (Israel et al., 1995; Klitzner, 1993; McKinlay, 1993; Susser, 1995). A randomized controlled trial might actually alter the interaction between an interven- tion and a community and result in an attenuation of the effectiveness of the intervention (Fisher, 1995; McKinlay, 1993). At the level of commu- nity interventions, experimental control might not be possible, especially when change is unplanned. That is, given the different sociopolitical struc- tures, cultures, and histories of communities and the numerous factors that are beyond a researcher’s ability to control, it might be impossible to identify and maintain a commensurate comparison community (Green et al., 1996; Hollister and Hill, 1995; Israel et al., 1995; Klitzner, 1993;

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 283 Mittelmark et al., 1993; Susser, 1995). Using a control community does not completely solve the problem of comparison, however, because one “cannot assume that a control community will remain static or free of influence by national campaigns or events occurring in the experimental communities” (Green et al., 1996, p. 274). Clear specification of the conceptual model guiding a community in- tervention is needed to clarify how an intervention is expected to work (Koepsell, 1998; Koepsell et al., 1992). This is the contribution of the Theory of Change model for communities described in Chapter 6. A theo- retical framework is necessary to specify mediating mechanisms and modi- fying conditions. Mediating mechanisms are pathways, such as social sup- port, by which the intervention induces the outcomes; modifying conditions, such as social class, are not affected by the intervention but can influence outcomes independently. Such an approach offers numer- ous advantages, including the ability to identify pertinent variables and how, when, and in whom they should be measured; the ability to evaluate and control for sources of extraneous variance; and the ability to develop a cumulative knowledge base about how and when programs work (Bickman, 1987; Donaldson et al., 1994; Lipsey, 1993; Lipsey and Polard, 1989). When an intervention is unsuccessful at stimulating change, data on mediating mechanisms can allow investigators to determine whether the failure is due to the inability of the program to activate the causal processes that the theory predicts or to an invalid program theory (Donaldson et al., 1994). Small-scale, targeted studies sometimes provide a basis for refining large-scale intervention designs and enhance understanding of methods for influencing group behavior and social change (Fisher, 1995; Susser, 1995; Winkleby, 1994). For example, more in-depth, comparative, mul- tiple-case-study evaluations are needed to explain and identify lessons learned regarding the context, process, impacts, and outcomes of commu- nity-based participatory research (Israel et al., 1998). Community-Based Participatory Research and Evaluation As reviewed in Chapter 4, broad social and societal influences have an impact on health. This concept points to the importance of an ap- proach that recognizes individuals as embedded within social, political, and economic systems that shape their behaviors and constrain their ac- cess to resources necessary to maintain their health (Brown, 1991;

284 HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR Gottlieb and McLeroy, 1994; Krieger, 1994; Krieger et al., 1993; Lalonde, 1974; Lantz et al., 1998; McKinlay, 1993; Sorensen et al., 1998a, b; Stokols, 1992, 1996; Susser and Susser, 1996a,b; Williams and Collins, 1995; World Health Organization [WHO], 1986). It also points to the importance of expanding the evaluation of interventions to incorporate such factors (Fisher, 1995; Green et al., 1995; Hatch et al., 1993; Israel et al., 1995; James, 1993; Pearce, 1996; Sorensen et al., 1998a,b; Steckler et al., 1992; Susser, 1995). This is exemplified by community-based participatory programs, which are collaborative efforts among community members, organization representatives, a wide range of researchers and program evaluators, and others (Israel et al., 1998). The partners contribute “unique strengths and shared responsibilities” (Green et al., 1995, p. 12) to enhance understand- ing of a given phenomenon, and they integrate the knowledge gained from interventions to improve the health and well-being of community members (Dressler, 1993; Eng and Blanchard, 1990-1; Hatch et al., 1993; Israel et al., 1998; Schulz et al., 1998a). It provides “the opportunity…for communities and science to work in tandem to ensure a more balanced set of political, social, economic, and cultural priorities, which satisfy the de- mands of both scientific research and communities at higher risk” (Hatch et al., 1993, p. 31). The advantages and rationale of community-based participatory research are summarized in Table 7-2 (Israel et al., 1998). The term “community-based participatory research,” is used here to clearly differentiate from “community-based research,” which is often used in ref- erence to research that is placed in the community but in which commu- nity members are not actively involved. Table 7-3 presents a set of principles, or characteristics, that capture the important components of community-based participatory research and evaluation (Israel et al., 1998). Each principle constitutes a continuum and represents a goal, for example, equitable participation and shared con- trol over all phases of the research process (Cornwall, 1996; Dockery, 1996; Green et al., 1995). Although the principles are presented here as distinct items, community-based participatory research integrates them. There are four major foci of evaluation with implications for research design: context, process, impact, and outcome (Israel, 1994; Israel et al., 1995; Simons-Morton et al., 1995). A comprehensive community-based par- ticipatory evaluation would include all types, but it is often financially practical to pursue only one or two. Evaluation design is extensively re- viewed in the literature (Campbell and Stanley, 1963; Cook and

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 285 TABLE 7-2 Rationale for Community-Based Participatory Research Rationale Reference Enhances the relevance and usefulness Brown 1995; Cousins and Earl 1995; Schulz of research data for all partners involved et al. 1998b Joins partners with diverse skills, Butterfoss et al., 1993; Hall 1992; knowledge, expertise, and sensitivities Himmelman 1992; Israel et al. 1989; to address complex problems Schensul et al. 1987 Improves quality and validity of research Altman 1995; Bishop 1996; deKoning and by engaging local knowledge and local Martin 1996; Dressler 1993; Elden and theory based on experience of people Levin 1991; Gaventa 1993; Hall 1992; involved Maguire 1987; Schensul et al. 1987; Vega 1992 Recognizes limitations of concept of Denzin, 1994; Reason 1994; Zich and “value-free” science (Denzin 1994) and Temoshok 1986 encourages self-reflexive, engaged, and self-critical role of researchers Acknowledges that knowledge is power, deKoning and Martin 1996; Dressler 1993; thus knowledge gained can be used by Hall 1992; Himmelman 1992; Maguire all partners involved to direct resources 1987; Tandon 1981 and influence policies that will benefit community Strengthens research and program Altman 1995; Green et al. 1995; Schensul development capacity of partners et al. 1987; Schulz, et al. 1998a; Singer 1993, 1994 Creates theory grounded in social Altman 1995; Schensul 1985 experience and creates better informed and more effective practice guided by such theories Increases possibility of overcoming Hatch et al. 1993; Schulz, et al. 1998b understandable distrust of research on part of communities that have historically been subjects of such research Has potential to “bridge the cultural gaps Bishop 1994, 1996; Hatch et al. 1993; that may exist” (Brown, 1995, p. 211) Schulz et al. 1998b; Vega 1992 between partners involved continued on next page

286 HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR TABLE 7-2 Continued Rationale Reference Overcomes fragmentation and separation Green et al. 1995; Israel et al. 1994; Reason of individual from culture and context 1994; Stokols 1996 that are often evident in more narrowly defined, categorical approaches Is consistent with implications or Israel et al., 1996 principles of practice that emanate from conceptual framework of stress process, for example, context-specific, comprehensive approach, and multiple outcomes Provides additional funds and possible Altman 1995; Nyden and Wiewel 1992; employment opportunities for community Schulz et al. 1998b partners Aims to improve health and well-being Durie 1996; Green et al. 1995; Hatch et al. of communities involved, both directly 1993; Schulz et al. 1998a, deKoning and through examining and addressing Martin 1996; Israel and Schurman 1990; identified needs and indirectly through Israel et al. 1994; Wallerstein 1992 increasing power and control over research process Involves communities that have been deKoning and Martin 1996; Gaventa 1993; marginalized on basis of race, ethnicity, Hatch et al. 1993; Krieger 1994; Maguire class, gender, sexual orientation in 1987; Vega 1992; Williams and Collins examining consequences of 1995 marginalization and attempting to reduce and eliminate it SOURCE: Israel et al., 1998. Reprinted with permission of Pergaus Books Publishers, a mem- ber of Perseus Books, L.L.C. Reichardt, 1979; Dignan, 1989; Green, 1977; Green and Gordon, 1982; Green and Lewis, 1986; Guba and Lincoln, 1989; House, 1980; Israel et al., 1995; Patton, 1987, 1990; Rossi and Freeman, 1989; Shadish et al., 1991; Stone et al., 1994; Thomas and Morgan, 1991; Windsor et al., 1994; Yin, 1993). Context encompasses the events, influences, and changes that occur naturally in the project setting or environment during the intervention

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 287 TABLE 7-3 Principles of Community-Based Participatory Research and Evaluation Principle Reference Recognizes community as unit of identity Hatch et al. 1993; Israel et al. 1994; Klein 1968; Sarason 1984; Steckler et al., 1993; Steuart 1993; Stringer 1996 Builds on strengths and resources Berger and Neuhaus, 1977; CDC/ATSDR within community 1997; Israel and Schurman, 1990; McKnight 1987, 1994; Minkler 1989; Putnam, 1993; Steuart 1993 Facilitates collaborative partnerships Bishop 1994; 1996; CDC/ATSDR 1997; in all phases of research Cornwall and Jewkes 1995; deKoning and Martin 1996; Durie 1996; Fawcett 1991; Gaventa 1993; Goodman 1999; Green et al. 1995; Hatch et al. 1993; Israel et al. 1992a, b; Levine et al. 1992; Lillie-Blanton and Hoffman 1995; Maguire 1996; Mittelmark et al. 1993; Nyden and Wiewel 1992; Park et al. 1993; Schulz, et al. 1998a; Singer 1993; Stringer 1996 Integrates knowledge and action for Cornwall and Jewkes 1995; deKoning and benefit of all partners Martin 1996; Fawcett 1991; Green et al. 1995; Israel et al. 1994; Lather, 1986; Lincoln and Reason 1996; Maguire 1987; Park et al. 1993; Reason 1988; Schulz, et al. 1998a; Singer 1993; Stringer 1996 Promotes a colearning and empowering Bishop 1994, 1996; CDC/ATSDR 1997; process that attends to social inequalities Cornwall and Jewkes 1995; deKoning and Martin 1996; Elden and Levin, 1991; Eng and Parker 1994; Freire 1987; Israel et al. 1994; Labonte 1994; Lillie-Blanton and Hoffman 1995; Maguire, 1987; Nyden and Wiewel 1992; Robertson and Minkler 1994; Schulz, et al. 1998a; Singer 1993; Stringer 1996; Yeich and Levine, 1992 continued on next page

288 HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR TABLE 7-3 Continued Principle Reference Involves cyclic and iterative process Altman 1995; Cornwall and Jewkes 1995; Fawcett et al. 1996; Hatch et al. 1993; Israel et al. 1994; Levine et al. 1992; Reason 1994; Smithies and Adams 1993; Stringer 1996; Tandon 1981 Addresses health from both positive and Antonovsky 1985; Baker and Brownson ecological perspectives 1999; Brown 1991; Durie 1996; Goodman 1999; Gottlieb and McLeroy 1994; Hancock 1993; Israel et al. 1994; Krieger 1994; McKinlay 1993; Schulz, et al. 1998a; Stokols 1992, 1996; WHO 1986 Disseminates findings and knowledge Bishop 1996; Dressler 1993; Fawcett 1991; gained to all partners Fawcett et al. 1996; Francisco et al. 1993; Gaventa 1993; Hall 1992; Israel et al, 1992a; Lillie-Blanton and Hoffman 1995; Maguire 1987; Schulz et al. 1998a; Singer 1994; Whitehead 1993 Involves long-term commitment of CDC/ATSDR 1997; Hatch et al. 1993; all partners Israel et al., 1992a; Mittelmark et al. 1993; Schulz et al. 1998a,b SOURCE: Israel et al., 1998. Reprinted with permission of Pergaus Books Publishers, a mem- ber of Perseus Books, L.L.C. that might affect the outcomes (Israel et al., 1995). Context data provide information about how particular settings facilitate or impede program success. Decisions must be made about which of the many factors in the context of an intervention might have the greatest effect on project suc- cess. Evaluation of process assesses the extent, fidelity, and quality of the implementation of interventions (McGraw et al., 1994). It describes the actual activities of the intervention and the extent of participant expo- sure, provides quality assurance, describes participants, and identifies the internal dynamics of program operations (Israel et al., 1995). A distinction is often made in the evaluation of interventions be- tween impact and outcome (Green and Lewis, 1986; Israel et al., 1995;

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 289 Simons-Morton et al., 1995; Windsor et al., 1994). Impact evaluation assesses the effectiveness of the intervention in achieving desired changes in targeted mediators. These include the knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and behavior of participants. Outcome evaluation examines the effects of the intervention on health status, morbidity, and mortality. Impact evalua- tion focuses on what the intervention is specifically trying to change, and it precedes an outcome evaluation. It is proposed that if the intervention can effect change in some intermediate outcome (“impact”), the “final” outcome will follow. Although the association between impact and outcome may not al- ways be substantiated (as discussed earlier in this chapter), impact may be a necessary measure. In some instances, the outcome goals are too far in the future to be evaluated. For example, childhood cardiovascular risk factor intervention studies typically measure intermediate gains in knowl- edge (Parcel et al., 1989) and changes in diet or physical activity (Simons- Morton et al., 1991). They sometimes assess cholesterol and blood pres- sure, but they do not usually measure heart disease because that would not be expected to occur for many years. Given the aims and the dynamic context within which community- based participatory research and evaluation are conducted, methodologic flexibility is essential. Methods must be tailored to the purpose of the research and evaluation and to the context and interests of the commu- nity (Beery and Nelson, 1998; deKoning and Martin, 1996; Dockery, 1996; Dressler, 1993; Green et al., 1995; Hall, 1992; Hatch et al., 1993; Israel et al., 1998; Marin and Marin, 1991; Nyden and Wiewel, 1992; Schulz et al., 1998b; Singer, 1993; Stringer, 1996). Numerous researchers have sug- gested greater use of qualitative data, from in-depth interviews and obser- vational studies, for evaluating the context, process, impact, and outcome of community-based participatory research interventions (Fortmann et al., 1995; Goodman, 1999; Hugentobler et al., 1992; Israel et al., 1995, 1998; Koepsell et al., 1992; Mittelmark et al., 1993; Parker et al., 1998; Sorensen et al., 1998a; Susser, 1995). Triangulation is the use of multiple methods and sources of data to overcome limitations inherent in each method and to improve the accuracy of the information collected, thereby increasing the validity and credibility of the results (Denzin, 1970; Israel et al., 1995; Reichardt and Cook, 1980; Steckler et al., 1992). For examples of the integration of qualitative and quantitative methods in research and evalu- ation of public-health interventions, see Steckler et al. (1992) and Parker et al. (1998).

290 HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR Assessing Government Interventions Despite the importance of legislation and regulation to promote pub- lic health, the effectiveness of government interventions are poorly un- derstood. In particular, policymakers often cannot answer important em- pirical questions: do legal interventions work and at what economic and social cost? In particular, policymakers need to know whether legal inter- ventions achieve their intended goals (e.g., reducing risk behavior). If so, do legal interventions unintentionally increase other risks (risk/risk tradeoff)? Finally, what are the adverse effects of regulation on personal or economic liberties and general prosperity in society? This is an important question not only because freedom has an intrinsic value in democracy, but also because activities that dampen economic development can have health effects. For example, research demonstrates the positive correla- tion between socioeconomic status and health (Chapter 4). Legal interventions often are not subjected to rigorous research evalu- ation. The research that has been done, moreover, has faced challenges in methodology. There are so many variables that can affect behavior and health status (e.g., differences in informational, physical, social, and cul- tural environments) that it can be extraordinarily difficult to demonstrate a causal relationship between an intervention and a perceived health ef- fect. Consider the methodologic constraints in identifying the effects of specific drunk-driving laws. Several kinds of laws can be enacted within a short period, so it is difficult to isolate the effect of each law. Publicity about the problem and the legal response can cross state borders, making state comparisons more difficult. Because people who drive under the in- fluence of alcohol also could engage in other risky driving behaviors (e.g., speeding, failing to wear safety belts, running red lights), researchers need to control for changes in other highway safety laws and traffic law en- forcement. Subtle differences between comparison communities can have unanticipated effects on the impact of legal interventions (DeJong and Hingson, 1998; Hingson, 1996). Despite such methodologic challenges, social science researchers have studied legal interventions, often with encouraging results. The social sci- ence, medical, and behavioral literature contains evaluations of interven- tions in several public health areas, particularly in relation to injury pre- vention (IOM, 1999; Rivara et al., 1997a,b). For example, studies have evaluated the effectiveness of regulations to prevent head injuries (bicycle helmets: Dannenberg et al., 1993; Kraus et al., 1994; Lund et al., 1991; Ni et al., 1997; Thompson et al., 1996a,b), choking and suffocation (refrig-

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 291 erator disposal and warning labels on thin plastic bags: Kraus, 1985), child poisoning (childproof packaging: Rogers, 1996), and burns (tap water: Erdmann et al., 1991). One regulatory measure that has received a great deal of research attention relates to reductions in cigarette-smoking (Chapter 6). Legal interventions can be an important part of strategies to change behaviors. In considering them, government and other public health agen- cies face difficult and complex tradeoffs between population health and individual rights (e.g., autonomy, privacy, liberty, property). One example is the controversy over laws that require motorcyclists to wear helmets. Ethical concerns accompany the use of legal interventions to mandate behavior change and must be part of the deliberation process. COST-EFFECTIVENESS EVALUATION It is not enough to demonstrate that a treatment benefits some pa- tients or community members. The demand for health programs exceeds the resources available to pay for them so that treatments provide clinical benefit and value for money. Investigators, clinicians, and program plan- ners must demonstrate that their interventions constitute a good use of resources. Well over $1 trillion is spent on health care each year in the United States. Current estimates suggest that expenditures on health care exceed $4000 per person (Health Care Financing Administration, 1998). Invest- ments are made in health care to produce good health status for the popu- lation, and it is usually assumed that more investment will lead to greater health. Some expenditures in health care produce relatively little benefit; others produce substantial benefits. Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) can help guide the use of resources to achieve the greatest improvement in health status for a given expenditure. Consider the medical interventions in Table 7-4, all of which are well- known, generally accepted, and widely used. Some are traditional medical care and some are preventive programs. To emphasize the focus on in- creasing good health, the table presents the data in units of health bought for $1 million rather than in dollars per unit of health, the usual approach in CEA. The life-year is the most comprehensive unit measure of health. Table 7-4 reveals several important points about resource allocation. There is tremendous variation among the interventions in what can be accom- plished for $1 million; which nets 7,750 life-years if used for influenza vaccinations for the elderly, 217 life-years if applied to smoking-cessation

292 HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR TABLE 7-4 Life-Years Yielded by Selected Interventions per $1 Million, 1997 Dollars Intervention Life Years/$1 Million Antihypertensive medication, U.S. population Propranolol 51 Captopril 8 Influenza vaccine, persons 65+ years old 7750 Tetanus booster every 10 years 4 Pap smear Every 3 years 36 Every 2 years 1 Every year < 0.5 Thyroid screening every 5 years Women 98 Men 40 Lovastatin at 20 milligrams per day, primary prevention in men with total cholesterol 300+ milligrams per decaliter Age 55-64 years, high risk 42 Age 35-44 years, low risk 2 Smoking-cessation programs 217 Based on cost-effectiveness ratios from the original articles, which were updated to 1997 dollars by using the medical care component of the Consumer Price Index. SOURCES, in order from top: Edelson et al., 1990; Office of Technology Assessment, 1981; Balestra and Littenberg, 1993; Eddy, 1990; Danese et al., 1996; Goldman et al., 1991; Cromwell et al., 1997. programs, but only 2 life-years if used to supply Lovastatin to men aged 35–44 who have high total cholesterol but no heart disease and no other risk factors for heart disease. How effectively an intervention contributes to good health depends not only on the intervention, but also on the details of its use. Antihyper- tensive medication is effective, but Propranolol is more cost-effective than Captopril. Thyroid screening is more cost-effective in women than in men. Lovastatin produces more good health when targeted at older high- risk men than at younger low-risk men. Screening for cervical cancer at 3- year intervals with the Pap smear yields 36 life-years per $1 million (com- pared with no screening), but each $1 million spent to increase the frequency of screening to 2 years brings only 1 additional life-year. The numbers in Table 7-4 illustrate a central concept in resource allo-

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 293 cation: opportunity cost. The true cost of choosing to use a particular intervention or to use it in a particular way is not the monetary cost per se, but the health benefits that could have been achieved if the money had been spent on another service instead. Thus, the opportunity cost of pro- viding annual Pap smears ($1 million) rather than smoking-cessation pro- grams is the 217 life-years that could have been achieved through smok- ing cessation. The term cost-effectiveness is commonly used but widely misunder- stood. Some people confuse cost-effectiveness with cost minimization. Cost minimization aims to reduce health care costs regardless of health outcomes. CEA does not have cost-reduction per se as a goal but is de- signed to obtain the most improvement in health for a given expenditure. CEA also is often confused with cost/benefit analysis (CBA), which com- pares investments with returns. CBA ranks the amount of improved health associated with different expenditures with the aim of identifying the ap- propriate level of investment. CEA indicates which intervention is pref- erable given a specific expenditure. Usually, costs are represented by the net or difference between the total costs of the intervention and the total costs of the alternative to that intervention. Typically, the measure of health is the QALY. The net health effect of the intervention is the difference between the QALYs produced by an intervention and the QALYs produced by an alternative or other comparative base. Comprehensive as it is, CEA does not include everything that might be relevant to a particular decision—so it should never be used mechani- cally. Decision-makers can have legitimate reasons to emphasize particu- lar groups, benefits, or costs more heavily than others. Furthermore, some decisions require information that cannot be captured easily in a CEA, such as the effect of an intervention on individual privacy or liberty. CEA is an analytical framework that arises from the question of which ways of promoting good health—procedures, tests, medications, educa- tional programs, regulations, taxes or subsidies, and combinations and variations of these—provide the most effective use of resources. Specific recommendations about behavioral and psychosocial interventions will contribute the most to good health if they are set in this larger context and based on information that demonstrates that they are in the public interest. However, comparing behavioral and psychosocial interventions with other ways of promoting health on the basis of cost-effectiveness requires additional research. Currently there are too few studies that meet this standard to support such recommendations.

294 HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR DISSEMINATION A basic assumption underlying intervention research is that tested interventions found to be effective are disseminated to and implemented in clinics, communities, schools, and worksites. However, there is a siz- able gap between science and practice (Anderson, 1998; Price, 1989, 1998). Researchers and practitioners need to ensure that an intervention is effective, and that the community or organization is prepared to adopt, implement, disseminate, and institutionalize it. There also is a need for demonstration research (phase V) to explain more about the process of dissemination itself. Dissemination to Consumers Biomedical research results are commonly reported in the mass me- dia. Nearly every day people are given information about the risks of dis- ease, the benefits of treatment, and the potential health hazards in their environments. They regularly make health decisions on the basis of their understanding of such information. Some evidence shows that lay people often misinterpret health risk information (Berger and Hendee, 1989; Fischhoff, 1999a) as do their doctors (Kalet et al., 1994; Kong et al., 1986). On the question of such a widely publicized issue as mammography, for example, evidence suggests that women overestimate their risk of getting breast cancer by a factor of at least 20 and that they overestimate the benefits of mammography by a factor of 100 (Black et al., 1995). In a study of 500 female veterans (Schwartz et al., 1997), half the women over- estimated their risk of death from breast cancer by a factor of 8. This did not appear to be because the subjects thought that they were more at risk than other women; only 10% reported that they were at higher risk than the average woman of their age. The topic of communication of health messages to the public is discussed at length in an IOM report, Speaking of Health: Assessing Health Communication. Strategies for Diverse Populations (IOM, 2001). Communicating Risk Information Improving communication requires understanding what information the public needs. That necessitates both descriptive and normative analy- ses, which consider what the public believes and what the public should know, respectively. Juxtaposing normative and descriptive analyses might

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 295 provide guidance for reducing misunderstanding (Fischhoff and Downs, 1997). Formal normative analysis of decisions involves the creation of decision trees, showing the available options and the probabilities of vari- ous outcomes of each, whose relative attractiveness (or aversiveness) must be evaluated by people. Although full analyses of decision problems can be quite complex, they often reveal ways to drastically simplify individu- als’ decision-making problems—in the sense that they reveal a small num- ber of issues of fact or value that really merit serious attention (Clemen, 1991; Merz et al., 1993; Raiffa, 1968). Those few issues can still pose sig- nificant challenges for decision makers. The actual probabilities can differ from people’s subjective probabilities (which govern their behavior). For example, a woman who overestimates the value of a mammogram might insist on tests that are of little benefit to her and mistrust the political/ medical system that seeks to deny such care (Woloshin et al., 2000). Ob- taining estimates of subjective probabilities is difficult. Although eliciting probabilities has been studied in other contexts over the past two genera- tions (vonWinterfeldt and Edwards, 1986; Yates, 1990), it has received much less attention in medical contexts, where it can pose questions that people are unwilling or unable to confront (Fischhoff and Bruine de Bruin, 1999). In addition to such quantitative beliefs, people often need a qualita- tive understanding of the processes by which risks are created and con- trolled. This allows them to get an intuitive feeling for the quantitative estimates, to feel competent to make decisions in their own behalf, to monitor their own experience, and to know when they need help (Fischhoff, 1999b; Leventhal and Cameron, 1987). Not seeing the world in the same way as scientists do also can lead lay people to misinterpret communications directed at them. One common (and some might argue, essential) strategy for evaluating any public health communication or re- search instrument is to ask people to think aloud as they answer draft versions of questions (Ericsson and Simon, 1994; Schriver, 1989). For ex- ample, subjects might be asked about the probability of getting HIV from unprotected sexual activity. Reasons for their assessments might be ex- plored as they elaborate on their impressions and the assumptions they use (Fischhoff, 1999b; McIntyre and West, 1992). The result should both reveal their intuitive theories and improve the communication process. When people must evaluate their options, the way in which informa- tion is framed can have a substantial effect on how it is used (Kahneman and Tversky, 1983; Schwartz, 1999; Tversky and Kahneman, 1988). The

296 HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR fairest presentation of risk information might be one in which multiple perspectives are used (Kahneman and Tversky, 1983, 1996). For example, one common situation involves small risks that add up over the course of time, through repeated exposures. The chances of being injured in an automobile crash are very small for any one outing, whether or not the driver wears a seatbelt. However, driving over a lifetime creates a substan- tial risk—and a substantial benefit for seatbelt use. One way to communi- cate that perspective is to do the arithmetic explicitly, so that subjects understand it (Linville et al., 1993). Another method that helps people to understand complex information involves presenting ranges rather than best estimates. Science is uncertain, and it should be helpful for people to understand the intervals within which their risks are likely to fall (Lipkus and Hollands, 1999). Risk communication can be improved. For example, many members of the public have been fearful that proximity to electromagnetic fields and power lines can increase the risk of cancer. Studies revealed that many people knew very little about properties of electricity. In particular, they usually were unaware that exposure decreases as a function of the cube root of distance from the lines. After studying mental models of this risk, Morgan (1995) developed a tiered brochure that presented the problem at a variety of risks. The brochure addressed common misconceptions and explained why scientists disagree about the risks posed by electromagnetic fields. Participants on each side of the debate reviewed the brochure for fairness. Several hundred thousand copies of the brochure have now been distributed. This approach to communication requires that the public lis- ten to experts, but it also requires that the experts listen to the public. Providing information is not enough; it is necessary to take the next step to demonstrate that the information is presented in an unbiased fashion and that the public accurately processes what is offered (Edworthy and Adams, 1997; Hadden, 1986; Morgan et al., 2001; National Research Council, 1989). The electromagnetic field brochure is an example of a general ap- proach in cognitive psychology, in which communications are designed to create coherent mental models of the domain being considered (Ericsson and Simon, 1994; Fischhoff, 1999b; Gentner and Stevens, 1983; Johnson- Laird, 1980). The bases of these communications are formal models of the domain. In the case of the complex processes creating and controlling risks, the appropriate representation is often an influence diagram, a di- rected graph that captures the uncertain relationships among the factors

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 297 involved (Clemen, 1991; Morgan et al., 2001). Creating such a diagram requires pooling the knowledge of diverse disciplines, rather than letting each tell its own part of the story. Identifying the critical messages requires considering both the science of the risk and recipients’ intuitive conceptualizations. Presentation of Clinical Research Findings Research results are commonly misinterpreted. When a study shows that the effect of a treatment is statistically significant, it is often assumed that the treatment works for every patient or at least for a high percentage of those treated. In fact, large experimental trials, often with considerable publicity, promote treatments that have only minor effects in most pa- tients. For example, contemporary care for high blood serum cholesterol has been greatly influenced by results of the Coronary Primary Prevention Trial or CPPT Lipid Research Clinics Program, 1984, in which men were randomly assigned to take a placebo or cholestyramine. Cholestyramine can significantly lower serum cholesterol and, in this trial, reduced it by an average of 8.5%. Men in the treatment group experienced 24% fewer heart attack deaths and 19% fewer heart attacks than did men who took the placebo. The CPPT showed a 24% reduction in cardiovascular mortality in the treated group. However, the absolute proportions of patients who died of cardiovascular disease were similar in the 2 groups: there were 38 deaths among 1900 participants (2%) in the placebo group and 30 deaths among 1906 participants (1.6%) in the cholestyramine group. In other words, taking the medication for 6 years reduced the chance of dying from car- diovascular disease from 2% to 1.6%. Because of the difficulties in communicating risk ratio information, the use of simple statistics, such as the number needed to treat (NNT), has been suggested (Sackett et al., 1997). NNT is the number of people that must be treated to avoid one bad outcome. Statistically, NNT is de- fined as the reciprocal of the absolute-risk reduction. In the cholesterol example, if 2% (0.020) of the patients died in the control arm of an ex- periment and 1.6% (0.016) died in the experimental arm, the absolute risk reduction is 0.020 – 0.016 = 0.004. The reciprocal of 0.004 is 250. In this case, 250 people would have to be treated for 6 years to avoid 1 death from coronary heart disease. Treatments can harm as well as benefit, so in addition to calculating the NNT, it is valuable to calculate the number

298 HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR needed to harm (NNH). This is the number of people a clinician would need to treat to produce one adverse event. NNT and NNH can be modi- fied for those in particular risk groups. The advantage of these simple numbers is that they allow much clearer communication of the magnitude of treatment effectiveness. Shared Decision Making Once patients understand the complex information about outcomes, they can fully participate in the decision-making process. The final step in disseminating information to patients involves an interactive process that allows patients to make informed choices about their own health-care. Despite a growing consensus that they should be involved, evidence suggests that patients are rarely consulted. Wennberg (1995) outlined a variety of common medical decisions in which there is uncertainty. In each, treatment selection involves profiles of risks and benefits for pa- tients. Thiazide medications can be effective at controlling blood pres- sure, they also can be associated with increased serum cholesterol; the benefit of blood pressure reduction must be balanced against such side effects as dizziness and impotence. Factors that affect patient decision making and use of health services are not well understood. It is usually assumed that use of medical services is driven primarily by need, that those who are sickest or most disabled use services the most (Aday, 1998). Although illness is clearly the major rea- son for service use, the literature on small-area variation demonstrates that there can be substantial variability in service use among communities that have comparable illness burdens and comparable insurance coverage (Wennberg, 1998). Therefore, social, cultural, and system variables also contribute to service use. The role of patients in medical decision making has undergone sub- stantial recent change. In the early 1950s, Parsons (1951) suggested that patients were excluded from medical decision making unless they assumed the “sick role,” in which patients submit to a physician’s judgment, and it is assumed that physicians understand the patients’ preferences. Through a variety of changes, patients have become more active. More informa- tion is now available, and many patients demand a greater role (Sharf, 1997). The Internet offers vast amounts of information to patients; some of it misleading or inaccurate (Impicciatore et al., 1997). One difficulty is that many patients are not sophisticated consumers of technical medical information (Strum, 1997).

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 299 Another important issue is whether patients want a role. The litera- ture is contradictory on this point; at least eight studies have addressed the issue. Several suggest that most patients express little interest in par- ticipating (Cassileth et al., 1980; Ende et al., 1989; Mazur and Hickam, 1997; Pendleton and House, 1984; Strull et al., 1984; Waterworth and Luker, 1990). Those studies challenge the basis of shared medical decision making. Is it realistic to engage patients in the process if they are not interested? Deber (Deber, 1994; Deber et al., 1996) has drawn an impor- tant distinction between problem solving and decision making. Medical problem solving requires technical skill to make an appropriate diagnosis and select treatment. Most patients prefer to leave those judgments in the hands of experts (Ende et al., 1989). Studies challenging the notion that patients want to make decisions typically asked questions about problem solving (Ende et al., 1989; Pendleton and House, 1984; Strull et al., 1984). Shared decision making requires patients to express personal prefer- ences for desired outcomes, and many decisions involve very personal choices. Wennberg (1998) offers examples of variation in health care prac- tices that are dominated by physician choice. One is the choice between mastectomy and lumpectomy for women with well-defined breast cancer. Systematic clinical trials have shown that the probability of surviving breast cancer is about equal after mastectomy and after lumpectomy fol- lowed by radiation (Lichter et al., 1992). But in some areas of the United States, nearly half of women with breast cancer have mastectomies (for example, Provo, Utah); in other areas less than 2% do (for example, New Jersey; Wennberg, 1998). Such differences are determined largely by sur- geon choice; patient preference is not considered. In the breast cancer example, interviews suggest that some women have a high preference for maintaining the breast, and others feel more comfortable having more breast tissue removed. The choices are highly personal and reflect varia- tions in comfort with the idea of life with and without a breast. Patients might not want to engage in technical medical problem solving, but they are the only source of information about preferences for potential out- comes. The process by which patients exercise choice can be difficult. There have been several evaluations of efforts to involve patients in decision making. Greenfield and colleagues (1985) taught patients how to read their own medical records and offered coaching on what questions to ask during encounters with physicians. In this randomized trial involving pa- tients with peptic ulcer disease, those assigned to a 20-minute treatment had fewer functional limitations and were more satisfied with their care

300 HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR than were patients in the control group. A similar experiment involving patients treated for diabetes showed that patients randomly assigned to receive visit preparation scored significantly better than controls on three dimensions of health-related quality of life (mobility, role performance, physical activity). Furthermore, there were significant improvements for biochemical measures of diabetes control (Greenfield et al., 1988). Many medical decisions are more complex than those studied by Greenfield and colleagues. There are usually several treatment alterna- tives, and the outcomes for each choice are uncertain. Also, the impor- tance of the outcomes might be valued differently by different people. Shared decision-making programs have been proposed to address those concerns (Kasper et al., 1992). The programs usually use electronic me- dia. Some involve interactive technologies in which a patient becomes familiar with the probabilities of various outcomes. With some technolo- gies, the patient also has the opportunity to witness others who have em- barked on different treatments. Video allows a patient to witness the out- comes of others who have made each treatment choice. A variety of interactive programs have been systematically evaluated. In one study (Barry et al., 1995), patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia were given the opportunity to use an interactive video. The video was generally well received, and the authors reported that there was a significant reduction in the rate of surgery and an increase in the proportion who chose “watch- ful waiting” after using the decision aid. Flood et al. (1996) reported simi- lar results with an interactive program. Not all evaluations of decision aids have been positive. In one evalu- ation of an impartial video for patients with ischemic heart disease, (Liao et al., 1996) 44% of the patients found it helpful for making treatment choices but more than 40% reported that it increased their anxiety (Liao et al., 1996). Most of the patients had received advice from their physi- cians before watching the video. Despite enthusiasm for shared medical decision making, little system- atic research has evaluated interventions to promote it (Frosch and Kaplan, 1999). Systematic experimental trials are needed to determine whether the use of shared decision aids enhances patient outcomes. Al- though decision aids appear to enhance patient satisfaction, it is unclear whether they result in reductions in surgery, as suggested by Wennberg (1998), or in improved patient outcomes (Frosch and Kaplan, 1999).

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 301 Dissemination Through Organizations The effect of any preventive intervention depends both on its ability to influence health behavior change or reduce health risks and on the extent to which the target population has access to and participates in the program. Few preventive interventions are free-standing in the commu- nity. Rather, organizations serve as “hosts” for health promotion and dis- ease prevention programs. Once a program has proven successful in dem- onstration projects and efficacy trials, it must be adopted and implemented by new organizations. Unfortunately, diffusion to new organizations often proceeds very slowly (Murray, 1986; Parcel et al., 1990). A staged change process has been proposed for optimal diffusion of preventive interventions to new organizations. Although different re- searchers have offered a variety of approaches, there is consensus on the importance of at least four stages (Goodman et al., 1997): • dissemination, during which organizations are made aware of the programs and their benefits; • adoption, during which the organization commits to initiating the program; • implementation, during which the organization offers the program or services; • maintenance or institutionalization, during which the organization makes the program part of its routines and standard offerings. Research investigating the diffusion of health behavior change pro- grams to new organizations can be seen, for example, in adoption of pre- vention curricula by schools and of preventive services by medical care practices. Schools Schools are important because they allow consistent contact with children over their developmental trajectory and they provide a place where acquisition of new information and skills is normative (Orlandi, 1996b). Although much emphasis has been placed on developing effec- tive health behavior change curricula for students throughout their school years, the literature is replete with evaluations of school-based curricula that suggest that such programs have been less than successful (Bush et

302 HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR al., 1989; Parcel et al., 1990; Rohrbach et al., 1996; Walter, 1989). Chal- lenges or barriers to effective diffusion of the programs include organiza- tional issues, such as limited time and resources, few incentives for the organization to give priority to health issues, pressure to focus on aca- demic curricula to improve student performance on proficiency tests, and unclear role delineation in terms of responsibility for the program; extra- organizational issues or “environmental turbulence,” such as restructuring of schools, changing school schedules or enrollments, uncertainties in pub- lic funding; and characteristics of the programs that make them incom- patible with the potential host organizations, such as being too long, costly, and complex (Rohrbach et al., 1996; Smith et al., 1995). Initial or traditional efforts to enhance diffusion focused on the char- acteristics of the intervention program, but more recent studies have fo- cused on the change process itself. Two NCI-funded studies to diffuse to- bacco prevention programs throughout schools in North Carolina and Texas targeted the four stages of change and were evaluated through ran- domized, controlled trials (Goodman et al., 1997; Parcel et al., 1989, 1995; Smith et al., 1995; Steckler et al., 1992). Teacher-training interventions appeared to enhance the likelihood of implementation in each study (an effect that has been replicated in other investigations; see Perry et al., 1990). However, other strategies (e.g., process consultation, newsletters, self-paced instructional video) were less successful at enhancing adoption and institutionalization. None of the strategies attempted to change the organizing arrangements (such as reward systems or role responsibilities) of the school districts to support continued implementation of the pro- gram. These results suggest that further reliance on organizational change theory might greatly enhance the diffusion of programs more rapidly and thoroughly. For example, Rohrbach et al. (1996, pp. 927–928) suggest that “change agents and school personnel should work as a team to diag- nose any problems that may impede program implementation and develop action plans to address them [and that] . . . change agents need to pro- mote the involvement of teachers, as well as that of key administrators, in decisions about program adoption and implementation.” These sugges- tions are clearly consistent with an organizational development approach. Goodman and colleagues (1997) suggest that the North Carolina inter- vention might have been more effective had it included more participa- tive problem diagnosis and action planning, and had consultation been less directive and more oriented toward increasing the fit between the host organization and the program.

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 303 Medical Practices Primary care medical practices have long been regarded as organiza- tional settings that provide opportunities for health behavior interven- tions. With the growth of managed care and its financial incentives for prevention, these opportunities are even greater (Gordon et al., 1996). Much effort has been invested in the development of effective programs and processes for clinical practices to accomplish health behavior change. However, the diffusion of such programs to medical practices has been slow (e.g., Anderson and May, 1995; Lewis, 1988). Most systemic programs encourage physicians, nurses, health educa- tors, and other members of the health-professional team to provide more consistent change-related statements and behavioral support for health- enhancing behaviors in patients (Chapter 5). There might be fundamen- tal aspects of a medical practice that support or inhibit efforts to improve health-related patient behavior (Walsh and McPhee, 1992). Visual re- minders to stay up-to-date on immunizations, to stop smoking cigarettes, to use bicycle helmets, and to eat a healthy diet are examples of systemic support for patient activation and self-care (Lando et al., 1995). Internet support for improved self-management of diabetes has shown promise (McKay et al., 1998). Automated chart reminders to ask about smoking status, update immunizations, and ensure timely cancer-screening exami- nations—such as Pap smears, mammography, and prostate screening—are systematic practice-based improvements that increase the rate of success in reaching stated goals on health process and health behavior measures (Cummings et al., 1997). Prescription forms for specific telephone call- back support can enhance access to telephone-based counseling for weight loss, smoking cessation, and exercise and can make such behavioral teach- ing and counseling more accessible (Pronk and O’Connor, 1997). Those and other structural characteristics of clinical practices are being used and evaluated as systematic practice-based changes that can improve treat- ment for, and prevention of, various chronic illnesses (O’Connor et al., 1998). Barriers to diffusion include physician factors, such as lack of training, lack of time, and lack of confidence in one’s prevention skills; health-care system factors, such as lack of health-care coverage and inadequate reim- bursement for preventive services in fee-for-service systems; and office or- ganization factors, such as inflexible office routines, lack of reminder sys- tems, and unclear assignment of role responsibilities (Thompson et al., 1995; Wagner et al., 1996). The capitated financing of many managed-care organizations greatly

304 HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR reduces system barriers. Interventions that have focused solely on physi- cian knowledge and behavior have not been very effective. Interventions that also addressed office organization factors have been more effective (Solberg et al., 1998b; Thompson et al., 1995). For example, the diffusion of the Put Prevention Into Practice (PPIP) program (Griffith et al., 1995), a comprehensive federal effort, was recommended by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force and is distributed by federal agencies and through professional associations. Using a case study approach, McVea and col- leagues (1996) studied the implementation of the program in family prac- tice settings. They found that PPIP was “used not at all or only sporadi- cally by the practices that had ordered the kit” (p. 363). The authors suggested that the practices that provided selected preventive services did not adopt the PPIP because they did not have the organizational skills and resources to incorporate the prevention systems into their office routines without external assistance. Summary Descriptive research clearly indicates a need for well-conceived and methodologically-rigorous diffusion research. Many of the barriers to more rapid and effective diffusion are clearly “systems problems” (Solberg et al., 1998b). Thus, even though the results are somewhat mixed, recent work applying systems approaches and organizational development strategies to the diffusion dilemma is encouraging. In particular, the emphasis on build- ing internal capacity for diffusion of the preventive interventions—for example, continuous quality improvement teams (Solberg et al., 1998a) and the identification and training of “program champions” within the adopting systems (Smith et al., 1995)—seems crucial for institutionaliza- tion of the programs. Dissemination to Community-Based Groups This section examines three aspects of dissemination: the need for dissemination of effective community interventions, community readi- ness for interventions, and the role of dissemination research. Dissemination of Effective Community Interventions Dissemination requires the identification of core and adaptive ele- ments of an intervention (Pentz et al., 1990; Pentz and Trebow, 1997;

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 305 Price, 1989). Core elements are features of an intervention program or policy that must be replicated to maintain the integrity of the interven- tions as they are transferred to new settings. They include theoretically based behavior change strategies, targeting of multiple levels of influence, and the involvement of empowered community leaders (Florin and Wandersman, 1990; Pentz, 1998). Practitioners need training in specific strategies for the transfer of core elements (Bero et al., 1998; Orlandi, 1986). In addition, the amount of intervention delivered and its reach into the targeted population might have to be unaltered to replicate be- havior change in a new setting. Research has not established a quantita- tive “dose” of intervention or a quantitative guide for the percentage of core elements that must be implemented to achieve behavior change. Pro- cess evaluation can provide guidance regarding the desired intensity and fidelity to intervention protocol. Botvin and colleagues (1995), for ex- ample, found that at least half the prevention program sessions needed to be delivered to achieve the targeted effects in a youth drug abuse preven- tion program. They also found that increased prevention effects were as- sociated with fidelity to the intervention protocol, which included stan- dardized training of those implementing the program, implementation within 2 weeks of that training, and delivery of at least two program ses- sions or activities per week (Botvin et al., 1995). Adaptive elements are features of an intervention that can be tailored to local community, organizational, social, and economic realities of a new setting without diluting the effectiveness of the intervention (Price, 1989). Adaptations might include timing and scheduling or culturally meaningful themes through which the educational and behavior change strategies are delivered. Community and Organizational Readiness Community and organizational factors might facilitate or hinder the adoption, implementation, and maintenance of innovative interventions. Diffusion theory assumes that the unique characteristics of the adopter (such as community, school, or worksite) interact with the specific at- tributes of the innovation (risk factor targets) to determine whether and when an innovation is adopted and implemented (Emmons et al., 2000; Rogers, 1983, 1995). Rogers (1983, 1995) has identified characteristics that predict the adoption of innovations in communities and organiza- tions. For example, an innovation that has a relative advantage over the

306 HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR idea or activity that it supersedes is more likely to be adopted. In the case of health promotion, organizations might see smoke-free worksites as hav- ing a relative advantage not only for employee health, but also for the reduction of absenteeism. An innovation that is seen as compatible with adopters’ sociocultural values and beliefs, with previously introduced ideas, or with adopters’ perceived needs for innovation is more likely to be imple- mented. The less complex and clearer the innovation, the more likely it is to be adopted. For example, potential adopters are more likely to change their health behaviors when educators provide clear specification of the skills needed to change the behaviors. Trialability is the degree to which an innovation can be experimented with on a limited basis. In nutrition edu- cation, adopters are more likely to prepare low-fat recipes at home if they have an opportunity to taste the results in a class or supermarket and are given clear, simple directions for preparing them. Finally, observability is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others. In health behavior change, an example of observability might be attention given to a health promotion program by the popular press (Pentz, 1998; Rogers, 1983). Dissemination Research The ability to identify effective interventions and explain the charac- teristics of communities and organizations that support dissemination of those interventions provides the basic building blocks for dissemination. It is necessary, however, to learn more about how dissemination occurs to increase its effectiveness (Pentz, 1998). What are the core elements of interventions, and how can they be adapted (Price, 1989)? How do the predictors of diffusion function in the dissemination process (Pentz, 1998)? What characteristics of community leaders are associated with dissemina- tion of prevention programs? What personnel and material resources are needed to implement and maintain prevention programs? How can writ- ten materials and training in program implementation be provided to pre- serve fidelity to core elements (Price, 1989)? Dissemination research could help identify alternatives to conceptu- alizing transfer of intervention technology from research to the practice setting. Rather than disseminating an exact replication of specific tested interventions, program transfer might be based on core and adaptive in- tervention components at both the individual and community organiza- tional levels (Blaine et al., 1997; Perry 1999). Dissemination might also

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 307 be viewed as replicating a community-based participatory research process, or as a planning process that incorporates core components (Perry 1999), rather than exact duplication of all aspects of intervention activities. The principles of community-based participatory research presented here could be operationalized and used as criteria for examining the ex- tent to which these dimensions were disseminated to other projects. The guidelines developed by Green and colleagues (1995) for classifying par- ticipatory research projects also could be used. Similarly, based on her research and experience with children and adolescents in school health behavior change programs, Perry (1999) developed a guidebook that out- lines a 10-step process for developing communitywide health behavior programs for children and adolescents. Facilitating Interorganizational Linkages To address complex health issues effectively, organizations increas- ingly form links with one another to form either dyadic connections (pairs) or networks (Alter and Hage, 1992). The potential benefits of these interorganizational collaborations include access to new informa- tion, ideas, materials, and skills; minimization of duplication of effort and services; shared responsibility for complex or controversial programs; in- creased power and influence through joint action; and increased options for intervention (e.g., one organization might not experience the political constraints that hamper the activities of another; Butterfoss et al., 1993). However, interorganizational linkages have costs. Time and resources must be devoted to the formation and maintenance of relationships. Negotiat- ing the assessment and planning processes can take a longer time. And sometimes an organization can find that the policies and procedures of other organizations are incompatible with its own (Alter and Hage, 1992; Butterfoss et al., 1993). One way a dyadic linkage between organizations can serve health- promoting goals grows out of the diffusion of innovations through organi- zations. An organization can serve as a “linking agent” (Monahan and Scheirer, 1988), facilitating the adoption of a health innovation by orga- nizations that are potential implementors. For example, the National In- stitute for Dental Research (NIDR) developed a school-based program to encourage children to use a fluoride mouth rinse to prevent caries. Rather than marketing the program directly to the schools, NIDR worked with

308 HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR state agencies to promote the program. In a national study, Monahan and Scheirer (1988) found that when state agencies devoted more staff to the program and located a moderate proportion of their staff in regional of- fices (rather than in a central office) there was likely to be a larger propor- tion of school districts implementing the program. Other programs, such as the Heart Partners program of the American Heart Association (Rob- erts-Gray et al., 1998), have used the concept of linking agents to diffuse preventive interventions. Studies of these approaches attempt to identify the organizational policies, procedures, and priorities that permit the link- ing agent to successfully reach a large proportion of the organizations that might implement the health behavior program. However, the research in this area does not allow general conclusions or guidelines to be drawn. Interorganizational networks are commonly used in community-wide health initiatives. Such networks might be composed of similar organiza- tions that coordinate service delivery (often called consortia) or organiza- tions from different sectors that bring their respective resources and ex- pertise to bear on a complex health problem (often called coalitions). Multihospital systems or linkages among managed-care organizations and local health departments for treating sexually transmitted diseases (Ruth- erford, 1998) are examples of consortia. The interorganizational networks used in Project ASSIST and COMMIT, major NCI initiatives to reduce the prevalence of smoking, are examples of coalitions (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1990). Stage theory has been applied to the formation and performance of interorganizational networks (Alter and Hage, 1992; Goodman and Wandersman, 1994). Various authors have posited somewhat different stages of development, but they all include: initial actions, to form the coalition; the formalization of the mission, structure, and processes of the coalition; planning, development, and implementation of programmatic activities; and accomplishment of the coalition’s health goals. Stage theory suggests that different strategies are likely to facilitate success at different stages of development (Lewin, 1951; Schein, 1987). The complexity, for- malization, staffing patterns, communication and decision-making pat- terns, and leadership styles of the interorganizational network will affect its ability to progress toward its goals (Alter and Hage, 1992; Butterfoss et al., 1993; Kegler et al., 1998a,b). In 1993, Butterfoss and colleagues reviewed the literature on commu- nity coalitions and found “relatively little empirical evidence” (p. 315) to bring to bear on the assessment of their effectiveness. Although the use of

EVALUATING AND DISSEMINATING INTERVENTION RESEARCH 309 coalitions in community-wide health promotion continues, the accumu- lation of evidence supporting their effectiveness is still slim. Several case studies suggest that coalitions and consortia can be successful in bringing about changes in health behaviors, health systems, and health status (e.g., Butterfoss et al., 1998; Fawcett et al., 1997; Kass and Freudenberg, 1997; Myers et al., 1994; Plough and Olafson, 1994). However, the conditions under which coalitions are most likely to thrive and the strategies and processes that are most likely to result in effective functioning of a coali- tion have not been consistently identified empirically. Evaluation models, such as the FORECAST model (Goodman and Wandersman, 1994) and the model proposed by the Work Group on Health Promotion and Community Development at the University of Kansas (Fawcett et al., 1997), address the lack of systematic and rigorous evaluation of coalitions. These models provide strategies and tools for assessing coalition functioning at all stages of development, from initial formation to ultimate influence on the coalition’s health goals and objec- tives. They are predicated on the assumption that the successful passage through each stage is necessary, but not sufficient, to ensure successful passage through the next stage. Widespread use of these and other evalua- tion frameworks and tools can increase the number and quality of the empirical studies of the effects of interorganizational linkages. Orlandi (1996a) states that diffusion failures often result from a lack of fit between the proposed host organization and the intervention pro- gram. Thus, he suggests that if the purpose is to diffuse an existing pro- gram, the design of the program and the process of diffusion need to be flexible enough to adapt to the needs and resources of the organization. If the purpose is to develop and disseminate a new program, innovation development and transfer process should be integrated. Those conclusions are consistent with some of the studies reviewed above. For example, McVea et al. (1996) concluded that a “one size fits all” approach to clini- cal preventive systems was not likely to diffuse effectively. REFERENCES Aday, L.A. (1998). Evaluating the Healthcare System: Effectiveness, Efficiency, and Equity. Chicago: Health Administration Press. Alter, C. and Hage, J. (1992). Organizations Working Together. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Altman, D.G. (1995). Sustaining interventions in community systems: On the relationship between researchers and communities. Health Psychology, 14, 526–536.

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Health and Behavior reviews our improved understanding of the complex interplay among biological, psychological, and social influences and explores findings suggested by recent research—including interventions at multiple levels that we can employ to improve human health.

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