National Academies Press: OpenBook
« Previous: 11 Next Steps for Research
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

References

CHAPTER 1

Anderson, J.R. 1982 Acquisition of cognitive skill. Psychological Review 89:369–406.

1987 Skill acquisition: Compilation of weak-method problem solutions. Psychological Review 94:192–210.


Bloom, B.S. 1964 Stability and Change in Human Characteristics. New York: Wiley.

Bransford, J.D., and B.S.Stein 1993 The IDEAL Problem Solver (2nd ed.). New York: Freeman.

Brice-Heath, S. 1981 Toward an ethnohistory of writing in American. Pp. 25–45 in Writing: The Nature, Development, and Teaching of Written Communication (Vol. 1), M.F.Whiteman, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

1983 Ways with Words: Language, Life and Work in Communities and Classrooms. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Brown, A.L. 1975 The development of memory: Knowing, knowing about knowing, and knowing how to know. In Advances in Child Development and Behavior (Vol. 10), H.W.Reese, ed. New York: Academic Press.

Brown, A.L., and J.C.Campione 1994 Guided discovery in a community of learners. Pp. 229–270 in Classroom Lessons: Integrating Cognitive Theory and Classroom Practices, K.McGilly, ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.


Carey, S., and R.Gelman 1991 The Epigenesis of Mind: Essays on Biology and Cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Chase, W.G., and H.A.Simon 1973 Perception in chess. Cognitive Psychology 1:33–81.

Chi, M.T.H., P.J.Feltovich, and R.Glaser 1981 Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices. Cognitive Science 5:121–152.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Clement, J. 1982 Student preconceptions of introductory mechanics. American Journal of Physics 50:66–71.

Cobb, P. 1994 Theories of Mathematical Learning and Constructivism: A Personal View. Paper presented at the Symposium on Trends and Perspectives in Mathematics Education, Institute for Mathematics, University of Klagenfurt, Austria.

Cole, B. 1996 Characterizing On-line Communication: A First Step. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, April 8–12, New York, NY.

Confrey, J. 1990 A review of research on student conceptions in mathematics, science programming. In Review of Research in Education 16:3–55, C.B.Cazden, ed. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

deGroot, A.D. 1965 Thought and Choice in Chess. The Hague, the Netherlands: Mouton.

1969 Methodology: Foundations of Inference and Research in the Behavioral Sciences. New York and the Hague, the Netherlands: Mouton.

Diamat, R.J., and D.J.Bearison 1991 Development of formal reasoning during successive peer interactions. Developmental Psychology 27:277–284.

DiSessa, A. 1982 Unlearning Aristotelian physics: A study of knowledge-base learning. Cognitive Science 6:37–75.

Duckworth, E. 1987 “The Having of Wonderful Ideas” and Other Essays on Teaching and Learning. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University.

Dweck, C.S. 1989 Motivation. Pp. 87–136 in Foundation for a Psychology of Education, A. Lesgold and R.Glaser, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Dweck, C., and E.Legget 1988 A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review 95:256–273.


Elmore, R.F., P.L.Peterson, and S.J.McCarthey 1996 Restructuring in the Classroom: Teaching, Learning, and School Organization. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Erickson, F. 1986 Qualitative methods in research on teaching. Pp. 119–161 in Handbook of Research on Teaching. New York: Macmillan.

Ericsson, K.A., and N.Charness 1994 Expert performance: Its structure and acquistion. American Psychologist 49:725–745.

Evans, J.St.B.T. 1989 Bias in Human Reasoning. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Flavell, J.H. 1973 Metacognitive aspects of problem-solving. In The Nature of Intelligence, L.B.Resnick, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.


Gardner, H. 1991 The Unschooled Mind: How Children Think and How Schools Should Teach. New York: Basic Books.

Gelman, R., and C.R.Gallistel 1978 The Children’s Understanding of Number. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Goldman, A.I. 1994 Argument and social epistemology. Journal of Philosophy 91:27–49.

Greenfield, P.M., and R.R.Cocking 1996 Interacting with Video. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Greeno, J. 1991 Number sense as situated knowing in a conceptual domain. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 22(3):170–218.


Habermas, J. 1990 Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Hammersly, M., and P.Atkinson 1983 Ethnography: Principles and Practices. London: Travistock.

Hatano, G., and K.Inagaki 1986 Two courses of expertise. In Child Development and Education in Japan, H.Stevenson, H.Azuma, and K.Hakuta, eds. New York: W.H.Freeman.

Heath, S. 1982 Ethnography in education: Defining the essential. Pp. 33–58 in Children In and Out of School, P.Gilmore and A.Gilmore, eds. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.

Holyoak, K.J. 1984 Analogical thinking and human intelligence. Pp. 199–230 in Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence (Vol. 2), R.J.Sternberg, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Hull, C.L. 1943 Principles of Behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Hutchins, E. 1995 Cognition in the Wild. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.


James, W. 1890 Principles of Psychology. New York: Holt.


Kuhn, D. 1991 The Skills of Argument. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.


Lamon, M., D.Caswell, M.Scardamalia, and R.Chandra 1997 Technologies of Use and Social Interaction in Classroom Knowledge Building Communities. Paper presented at the Symposium on Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning: Advancements and Challenges, K.Lonka, chair, European Association for Research in Learning and Instruction, August, Athens, Greece.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Lave, J. 1988 Cognition in Practice: Mind, Mathematics, and Culture in Everyday Life. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Lave, J., and E.Wegner 1991 Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Lehrer, R., and D.Chazan 1998a Designing Learning Environments for Developing Understanding of Geometry and Space. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

1998b New Directions for Teaching and Learning Geometry. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Lincoln, Y.S., and E.G.Guba 1985 Naturalistic Inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Lionni, L. 1970 Fish Is Fish. New York: Scholastic Press.

Marshall, C., and G.B.Rossman 1955 Designing Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

McClelland, J.L, and M.Chappell 1998 Familiarity breeds differentiation: A subject-likelihood approach to the effects of experience in recognition memory. Psychological Review. 105: 724–760.

McClelland, J.L., B.L.McNaughton, and R.C.O’Reilly 1995 Why there are complementary learning systems in hippocampus and neocortex: Insights from the successes and failures of connectionist models of learning and memory. Psychological Review 102:419–447.

Mestre, J.P. 1994 Cognitive aspects of learning and teaching science. Pp. 3–1–3–53 in Teacher Enhancement for Elementary and Secondary Science and Mathematics: Status, Issues, and Problems, S.J.Fitzsimmons and L.C.Kerpelman, eds. NSF 94–80. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation.

Miles, M.B., and A.M.Huberman 1984 Qualitative Data Analysis: A Sourcebook of New Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Minstrell, J.A. 1989 Teaching science for understanding. Pp. 130–131 in Toward the Thinking Curriculum: Current Cognitive Research, L.B.Resnick and L.E.Klopfer, eds. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Moll, L.C. 1986a Creating Strategic Learning Environments for Students: A Community-Based Approach. Paper presented at the S.I.G. Language Developed Invited Symposium Literacy and Schooling, Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, California.

1986b Writing as a communication: Creating strategic learning environments for students. Theory into Practice 25:102–108.

1990 Vygotsky and Education. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Moll, L.C., J.Tapia, and K.F.Whitmore 1993 Living knowledge: The social distribution of cultural sources for thinking. Pp. 139–163 in Distributed Cognitions, G.Salomon, ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press

Moshman, D. 1995a Reasoning as self-constrained thinking. Human Development 38:53–64.

1995b The construction of moral rationality. Human Development 38:265–281.

Munkata, Y., J.L McClelland, M.H.Johnson, and R.S.Siegler 1997 Rethinking infant knowledge: Toward an adaptive process account of successes and failures in object permanence tasks. Psychological Review 104:686–713.

Newell, A., and H.A.Simon 1972 Human Problem Solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Newstead, S.E., and J.St.B.T.Evans, eds. 1995 Perspectives on Thinking and Reasoning: Essays in Honour of Peter Wason. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Norman, D.A. 1980 Twelve issues for cognitive science. Cognitive Science 4:1–32.

1993 Things That Make Us Smart: Defending Human Attributes in the Age of the Machine. New York: Addison-Wesley.

Novick, L.R., and K.J.Holyoak 1991 Mathematical problem solving by analogy. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 17(3)(May):398–415.


Palincsar, A.S., and A.L.Brown 1984 Reciprocal teaching of comprehension monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction 1:117–175.

Piaget, J. 1952 The Origins of Intelligence in Children. M.Cook, trans. New York: International Universities Press.

1973a The Child and Reality: Problems of Genetic Psychology. New York: Grossman.

1973b The Language and Thought of the Child. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

1977 The Grasp of Consciousness. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

1978 Success and Understanding. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Plaut, D.C., J.L.McClelland, M.S.Seidenberg, and K.E.Patterson 1996 Understanding normal and impaired word reading: Computational principles in quasi-regular domains. Psychological Review 103:56–115.

Prawaf, R.S., J.Remillard, R.T.Putnam, and R.M.Heaton 1992 Teaching mathematics for understanding: Case study of four fifth-grade teachers. Elementary School Journal 93:145–152.


Redish, E.F. 1996 Discipline-Specific Science Education and Educational Research: The Case of Physics. Paper prepared for the Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning, for The Sciences of Science Learning: An Interdisciplinary Discussion.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Rogoff, B. 1990 Apprenticeship in Thinking: Cognitive Development in Social Context. New York: Oxford University Press.

Rogoff, B., J.Mistry, A.Goncu, and C.Mosier 1993 Guided Participation in Cultural Activity by Toddlers and Caregivers. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 58(7): Serial No. 236.

Salmon, M.H., and C.M.Zeitz 1995 Analyzing conversational reasoning. Informal Logic 17:1–23.

Scardamalia, M., and C.Bereiter 1991 Higher levels of agency for children in knowledge-building: A challenge for the design of new knowledge media. Journal of the Learning Sciences 1:37–68.

Scardamalia, M., C.Bereiter, and R.Steinbach 1984 Teachability of reflective processes in written composition. Cognitive Science 8:173–190.

Schauble, L., R.Glaser, R.Duschl, S.Schulze, and J.John. 1995 Students’ understanding of the objectives and procedures of experimentation in the science classroom. Journal of the Learning Sciences 4(2):131– 166.

Schneps, M.H., and P.M.Sadler, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Science Education Department, Science Media Group 1987 A Private Universe. Video. Washington, DC: Annenberg/CPB..

Schoenfeld, A.H. 1983 Problem solving in the mathematics curriculum: A report, recommendation and annotated bibliography. Mathematical Association of America Notes No. 1.

1984 Mathematical Problem Solving. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

1991 On mathematics as sense making: An informal attack on the unfortunate divorce of formal and informal mathematics. Pp. 331–343 in Informal Reasoning and Education, J.F.Voss, D.N.Perkins, and J.W.Segal, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Schwartz, D.L., and J.D.Bransford 1998 A time for telling. Cognition and Instruction 16(4):475–522.

Simon, H.A. 1996 Observations on the Sciences of Science Learning. Paper prepared for the Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning for the Sciences of Science Learning: An Interdisciplinary Discussion. Department of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon University.

Skinner, B.F. 1950 Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological Review 57:193–216.

Spence, K.W. 1942 Theoretical interpretations of learning. In Comparative Psychology, F.A. Moss, ed. New York: Prentice-Hall.

Spradley, J. 1979 The Ethnographic Interview. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Javanovich.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Suina, J.H., and L.B.Smolkin 1994 From natal culture to school culture to dominant society culture: Supporting transitions for Pueblo Indian students. Pp. 115–130 in Cross-cultural Roots of Minority Child Development, P.M.Greenfield and R.R.Cocking, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Thorndike, E.L. 1913 Educational Psychology (Vols. 1 and 2). New York: Columbia University Press.


Vosniadou, S., and W.F.Brewer 1989 The Concept of the Earth’s Shape: A Study of Conceptual Change in Childhood. Unpublished paper. Center for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois, Champaign.

Vye, N.J.., S.R.Goldman, C.Hmelo, J.F.Voss, S.Williams, and Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1998a Complex mathematical problem solving by individuals and dyads. Cognition and Instruction 15(4).

Vye, N.J., D.L.Schwartz, J.D.Bransford, B.J.Barren, L.Zech, and Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1998b SMART environments that support monitoring, reflection, and revision. In Metacognition in Educational Theory and Practice, D.Hacker, J.Dunlosky, and A.Graessner, eds. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Vygotsky, L.S. 1962 Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

1978 Mind in Society: The Development of the Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA: The Harvard University Press. (Originally published 1930, New York: Oxford University Press.)


Warren, B., and A.Rosebery 1996 This question is just too, too easy: Perspectives from the classroom on accountability in science. Pp. 97–125 in the Contributions of Instructional Innovation to Understanding Learning, L.Schauble and R.Glaser, eds. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Watson, J.B. 1913 Psychology as a behaviorist views it. Psychological Review 20:158–177.

Wellman, H.M. 1990 The Child’s Theory of Mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

White, B.Y., and J.R.Fredrickson 1997 The ThinkerTools Inquiry Project: Making Scientific Inquiry Accessible to Students. Princeton, New Jersey: Center for Performance Assessment, Educational Testing Service.

1998 Inquiry, modeling, and metacognition: Making science accessible to all students. Cognition and Science 16:90–91.


Youniss, J., and W.Damon. 1992 Social construction in Piaget’s theory. Pp. 267–286 in Piaget’s Theory: Prospects and Possibilities, H.Berlin and P.B.Pufal, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

CHAPTER 2

American Association for the Advancement of Science 1989 Science for All Americans: A Project 2061 Report on Literacy Goals in Science, Mathematics, and Technology. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Anderson, J.R. 1981 Cognitive Skills and Their Acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

1982 Acquisition of cognitive skill. Psychological Review 89:369–406.


Beck I.L., M.G.McKeown, and E.W.Gromoll, et al. 1989 Learning from social studies texts. Cognition and Instruction 6:99–158.

Beck, I.L., M.G.McKeown, G.M.Sinatra, and J.A.Loxterman 1991 Revising social studies text from a text-processing perspective: Evidence of improved comprehensibility. Reading Research Quarterly 26:251–276.

Bransford, J.D. 1979 Human Cognition: Learning, Understanding, and Remembering. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Bransford J., T.Hasselbring, B.Barron, S.Kulweicz, J.Littlefield, and L.Goin 1988 Uses of macro-contexts to facilitate mathematical thinking. Pp. 125–147 in The Teaching and Assessing of Mathematical Problem Solving, R.I.Charles and E.A.Silver, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bransford, J.D., J.J.Franks, N.J.Vye, and R.D.Sherwood 1989 New approaches to instruction: Because wisdom can’t be told. In Similarity and Analogical Reasoning, S.Vosniadou and A.Ortony, eds. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Bransford, J.D., and B.S.Stein 1993 The IDEAL Problem Solver (2nd ed.). New York: Freeman.

Brophy, J.E. 1983 Research on the self-fulfilling prophecy and teacher expectations. Journal of Educational Psychology 61:365–374.

Brown, A.L. 1980 Metacognitive development and reading. In Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension: Perspectives from Cognitive Psychology, Linguistics, Artificial Intelligence, and Education , R.J.Spiro, B.C.Bruce, and W.F.Brewer, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Brown, J.S., A Collins, and P.Durgid 1989 Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher 18:32–41.


Case, R. 1978 Implications of developmental psychology for the design of effective instruction. Pp. 441–463 in Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, A.M.Lesgold, J.W.Pellegrino, S.D.Fokkema, and R.Glaser, eds. New York: Plenum.

Chase, W.G., and H.A.Simon 1973 Perception in chess. Cognitive Psychology 1:33–81.

Chi, M.T.H. 1978 Knowledge structures and memory development. Pp. 73–96 in Children’s Thinking: What Develops, R.Siegler, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Chi, M.T.H., P.J.Feltovich, and R.Glaser 1981 Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices. Cognitive Science 5:121–152.

Chi M.T.H., R.Glaser, and E.Rees 1982 Expertise in problem solving. In Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence (Vol. 1). R.J.Sternberg, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1997 The Jasper Project: Lessons in Curriculum, Instruction, Assessment, and Professional Development. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

deGroot, A.D. 1965 Thought and Choice in Chess. The Hague, the Netherlands: Mouton.

Dweck, C.S. 1989 Motivation. Pp. 87–136 in Foundations for a Psychology of Education, A. Lesgold and R.Glaser, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.


Egan, D.E., and B.J.Schwartz 1979 Chunking in recall of symbolic drawings. Memory and Cognition 7:149– 158.

Ehrlich, K., and E.Soloway 1984 An empirical investigation of the tacit plan knowledge in programming. Pp. 113–134 in Human Factors in Computer Systems, J.Thomas and M.L. Schneider, eds. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Ericsson, K.A., and H.A.Simon 1993 Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data. 1984/1993. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Ericsson, K.A., and J.J.Staszewski 1989 Skilled memory and expertise: Mechanisms of exceptional performance. Pp. 235–267 in Complex Information Processing: The Impact of Herbert A. Simon, D.Klahr and K.Kotovsky, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.


Flavell, J.H. 1985 Cognitive Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

1991 Understanding memory access. Pp. 281–299 in Cognition and the Symbolic Processes: Applied and Ecological Perspectives, R.Hoffman and D. Palermo, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.


Getzels, J., and M.Csikszentmihalyi 1976 The Creative Vision. New York: Wiley.

Glaser, R. 1992 Expert knowledge and processes of thinking. Pp. 63–75 in Enhancing Thinking Skills in the Sciences and Mathematics. D.F.Halpern, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Glaser, R., and M.T.H.Chi 1988 Overview. Pp. xv-xxvii in The Nature of Expertise, M.T.H.Chi, R.Glaser, and M.J.Farr, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Grossman, P.L. 1987 A Tale of Two Teachers: The Role of Subject Matter Orientation in Teaching. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington, DC.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

1990 The Making of a Teacher. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University.

Hasselbring, T.S., L.Goin, and J.D.Bransford 1987 Effective mathematics instruction: Developing automaticity. Teaching Exceptional Children 19(3):30–33.

Hatano, G. 1990 The nature of everyday science: A brief introduction. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 8:245–250.

Hinsley, D.A., J.R.Hayes, and H.A.Simon 1977 From words to equations: Meaning and representation in algebra word problems. Pp. 89–106 in Cognitive Processes in Comprehension, M.A. Just and P.A.Carpenter, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.


LaBerge, D., and S.J.Samuels 1974 Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology 6:293–323.

Larkin, J.H. 1979 Information processing models in science instruction. Pp. 109–118 in Cognitive Process Instruction, J.Lochhead and J.Clement, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

1981 Enriching formal knowledge: A model for learning to solve problems in physics. Pp. 311–334 in Cognitive Skills and Their Acquisition, J.R.Anderson, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

1983 The role of problem representation in physics. Pp. 75–98 in Mental Models, D.Gentner and A.L.Stevens, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Larkin, J., J.McDermottt, D.P.Simon, and H.A.Simon 1980 Expert and novice performance in solving physics problems. Science 208:1335–1342.

Larkin, J.H., and H.A.Simon 1987 Why a diagram is (sometimes) worth ten thousand words. Cognitive Science 11:65–69.

Lesgold, A.M. 1984 Acquiring expertise. Pp. 31–60 in Tutorials in Learning and Memory: Essays in Honor of Gordon Bower, J.R.Anderson and S.M.Kosslyn, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

1988 Problem solving. In The Psychology of Human Thoughts, R.J.Sternberg and E.E.Smith, eds. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Lesgold, A.M., H.Rubison, P.Feltovich, R.Glaser, D.Klopfer, and Y.Wang 1988 Expertise in a complex skill: Diagnosing x-ray pictures. Pp. 311–342 in The Nature of Expertise, M.T.H.Chi, R.Glaser, and M.Farr, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.


Miller, G.A. 1956 The magical number seven, plus or minus two. Some limits on our capacity to process information. Psychological Review 63:81–87.

Miller, R.B. 1978 The information system designer. Pp. 278–291 in The Analysis of Practical Skills, W.T.Singleton, ed. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

National Research Council 1996 National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Available: http://www.nap.edu.


Paige, J.M., and H.A.Simon 1966 Cognition processes in solving algebra word problems. Pp. 119–151 in Problem Solving, B.Kleinmutz, ed. New York: Wiley.


Redish, E.F. 1996 Discipline-specific Science Education and Educational Research: The Case of Physics. Paper prepared for the Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning for the Sciences of Science Learning: An Interdisciplinary Discussion.

Reusser, K. 1993 Tutoring systems and pedagogical theory: Representational tools for understanding, planning, and reflection in problem solving. Pp. 143–177 in Computers as Cognitive Tools, S.P.Lajoie and S.J.Deny, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Robinson, C.S., and J.R.Hayes 1978 Making inferences about relevance in understanding problems. In Human Reasoning, R.Revlin and R.E.Mayer, eds. Washington, DC: Winston.


Sabers, D.S., K.S.Cushing, and D.C.Berliner 1991 Differences among teachers in a task characterized by simultaneity, multidimensionality, and immediacy. American Educational Research Journal 28(1):63–88.

Schmidt, W.H., C.C.McKnight, and S.Raizen 1997 A Splintered Vision: An Investigation of U.S. Science and Mathematics Education. U.S. National Research Center for the Third International Mathematics and Science Study. Dordrecht/Boston/London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Available: gopher://gopher.wkap.nl.70/00gopher_root1%3A%5Bbook.soci.f500%5Df5101601.txt.

Schneider, W., and R.M.Shiffrin 1977 Controlled and automatic human information processing: Detection, search and attention. Psychological Review 84:1–66.

1985 Categorization (restructuring) and automatization: Two separable factors. Psychological Review 92(3):424–428.

Schneider, W., H.Gruber, A.Gold, and K.Opivis 1993 Chess expertise and memory for chess positions in children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 56:323–349.

Shulman, L. 1986 Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher 15(2):4–14.

1987 Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review 57:1–22.

Simon, D.P., and H.A.Simon 1978 Individual differences in solving physics problems. Pp. 325–348 in Children’s Thinking: What Develops? R.Siegler, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Simon, H.A. 1980 Problem solving and education. Pp. 81–96 in Problem Solving and Education: Issues in Teaching and Research, D.T.Tuma and R.Reif, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Spiro, R.J., P.L.Feltovich, M.J.Jackson, and R.L.Coulson 1991 Cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and hypertext: Random access instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. Educational Technology 31 (5):24–33.

Voss, J.F., T.R.Greene, T.A.Post, and B.C.Penner 1984 Problem solving skills in the social science. In The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research Theory (Vol. 17), G.H.Bower, ed. New York: Academic Press.


Whitehead, A.N. 1929 The Aims of Education. New York: MacMillan.

Wineburg, S.S. 1991 Historical problem solving: A study of the cognitive processes used in the evaluation of documentary and pictorial evidence. Journal of Educational Psychology 83(1):73–87.

1998 Reading Abraham Lincoln: An expert-expert study in the interpretation of historical texts. Cognitive Science 22:319–346.

Wineburg, S.S., and J.E.Fournier 1994 Contextualized thinking in history. Pp. 285–308 in Cognitive and Instructional Processes in History and the Social Sciences, M.Carretero and J.F. Voss, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

CHAPTER 3

Allen, B., and A.W.Boykin 1992 African American children and the educational process: Alleviating cultural discontinuity through prescriptive pedagogy. School Psychology Review 21(4):586–596.

Anderson, J.R., L.M.Reder, and H.A.Simon 1996 Situated learning and education. Educational Researcher 25:4(May)5–96.

Au, K., and C.Jordan 1981 Teaching reading to Hawaiian children: Finding a culturally appropriate solution. Pp. 139–152 in Culture and the Bilingual Classroom: Studies in Classroom Ethnography, H.Tureba, G.Guthrie, and K.Au, eds. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.


Barron, B.J., D.L.Schwartz, N.J.Vye, A.Moore, A.Petrosino, L.Zech, J.D.Bransford, and Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1998 Doing with understanding: Lessons from research on problem and project-based learning. Journal of Learning Sciences 7(3 and 4):271–312.

Barrows, H.S. 1985 How to Design a Problem-Based Curriculum for the Preclinical Years. New York: Springer.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Bassok, M., and K.J.Holyoak 1989a Interdomain transfer between isomorphic topics in algebra and physics. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 15:153–166.

1989b Transfer of domain-specific problem solving procedures. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 16:522–533.

Bassok, M., and K.L.Olseth 1995 Object-based representations: Transfer between cases of continuous and discrete models of change. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 21:1522–1588.

Behr, M.J., G.Harel, T.R.Post, and R.Lesh 1992 Rational number, ratio, and proportion. Pp. 308–310 in Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning: A Project of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, D.A.Grouws, ed. New York: Macmillan.

Bereiter, C. 1997 Situated cognition and how to overcome it. Pp. 281–300 in Situated Cognition: Social, Semiotic, and Psychological Perspectives, D.Kirshner and J.A. Whitson, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Biederman, I., and M.M.Shiffrar 1987 Sexing day-old chicks: A case study and expert systems analysis of a difficult perceptual-learning task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 13(4)(October):640–645.

Bielaczyc, K., P.Pirolli, and A.L.Brown 1995 Training in self-explanation and self-regulation strategies: Investigating the effects of knowledge acquisition activities on problem solving. Cognition and Instruction 13:221–252.

Bjork, R.A., and A.Richardson-Klavhen 1989 On the puzzling relationship between environment context and human memory. In Current Issues in Cognitive Processes: The Tulane Flowerree Symposium on Cognition, C.Izawa, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Blake, I.K. 1994 Language development and socialization in young African-American children. Pp. 167–195 in Cross Cultural Roots of Minority Child Development, P.M.Greenfield and R.R.Cocking, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Boykin, A.W., and F.Tom 1985 Black child socialization: A conceptual framework. Pp. 33–51 in Black Children: Social, Educational, and Parental Environments, H.McAdoo and J.McAdoo, eds. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Bransford, J.D. 1979 Human Cognition: Learning, Understanding, and Remembering. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Bransford, J.D., J.J.Franks, N.J.Vye, and R.D.Sherwood 1989 New approaches to instruction: Because wisdom can’t be told. In Similarity and Analogical Reasoning, S.Vosniadou and A.Ortony, eds. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Bransford, J.D., and R.Johnson 1972 Contextual prerequisites for understanding: Some investigations of comprehension and recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 11:717–726.

Bransford, J.D., and D.Schwartz 1999 Rethinking transfer: A simple proposal with multiple implications. Review of Research in Education 24:61–100.

Bransford, J.D., and B.S.Stein 1993 The IDEAL Problem Solver (2nd ed.). New York: Freeman.

Bransford, J.D., B.S.Stein, N.J.Vye, J.J.Franks, P.M.Auble, K.J.Mezynski, and G.A. Perfetto 1983 Differences in approaches to learning: An overview. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 3(4):390–398.

Bransford, J.D., L.Zech, D.Schwartz, B.Barron, N.J.Vye, and Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1998 Designs for environments that invite and sustain mathematical thinking. In Symbolizing, Communicating, and Mathematizing: Perspectives on Discourse, Tools, and Instructional Design, P.Cobb, ed. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Brice-Heath, S. 1981 Toward an ethnohistory of writing in American education. Pp. 25–45 in Writing: The Nature, Development and Teaching of Written Communication (Vol. 1), M.F.Whiteman, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

1983 Ways with Words: Language, Life and Work in Communities and Classrooms. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Broudy, H.S. 1977 Types of knowledge and purposes in education. Pp. 1–17 in Schooling and the Acquisition of Knowledge, R.C.Anderson, R.J.Spiro, and W.E. Montague, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Brown, A.L. 1975 The development of memory: Knowing, knowing about knowing, and knowing how to know. In Advances in Child Development and Behavior (Vol. 10), H.W.Reese, ed. New York: Academic Press.

Brown, A.L., J.D.Bransford, R.A.Ferrara, and J.C.Campione 1983 Learning, remembering, and understanding. Pp. 78–166 in Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol. 3 Cognitive Development (4th ed.), J.H.Flavell and E.M.Markman, eds. New York: Wiley.

Brown, G. 1986 Investigating listening comprehension in context. Applied Linguistics 7(3) Autumn):284–302.

Bruer, J.T. 1993 Schools for thought. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Byrnes, J.P. 1996 Cognitive Development and Learning in Instructional Contexts. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Campione, J., and A.L.Brown 1987 Linking dynamic assessment with school achievement. Pp. 82–114 in Dynamic Assessment: An Interactional Approach to Evaluating Learning Potential, C.S.Lidz, ed. New York: Guilford.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Carraher, T.N. 1986 From drawings to buildings: Mathematical scales at work. International Journal of Behavioural Development 9:527–544.

Carraher, T.N., D.W.Carraher, and A.D.Schliemann 1985 Mathematics in the street and in school. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 3:21–29.

Cazden, C. 1988 Classroom Discourse. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Cazden, C., S.Michaels, and P.Tabors 1985 Spontaneous repairs in sharing time narratives: The intersection of metalinguistic awareness, speech event and narrative style. In The Acquisition of Written Language: Revision and Response, S.Freedman, ed. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Chase, W.G., and H.A.Simon 1973 Perception in chess. Cognitive Psychology 1:33–81.

Chi, M.T.H., M.Bassok, M.W.Lewis, P.Reimann, and R.Glaser 1989 Self-explanations: How students study and use examples in learning to solve problems. Cognitive Science 13:145–182.

Chi, M.T.H., N.deLeeuw, M.Chiu, and C.LaVancher 1994 Eliciting self-explanations improves understanding. Cognitive Science 18:439–477.

Clement, J.J. 1982a Algebra word problem solutions: Thought processes underlying a common misconception. Journal of Research in Mathematics Education 13:16– 30.

1982b Students’ preconceptions in introductory mechanics. American Journal of Physics 50:66–71.

Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1996 Looking at technology in context: A framework for understanding technology and education research. Pp. 807–840 in The Handbook of Educational Psychology, D.C.Berliner and R.C.Calfee, eds. New York: Simon and Schuster-MacMillan.

1997 The Jasper Project: Lessons in Curriculum, Instruction, Assessment, and Professional Development. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

1998 Designing environments to reveal, support, and expand our children’s potentials. Pp. 313–350 in Perspectives on Fundamental Processes in Intellectual Functioning (Vol. 1), S.A.Soraci and W.McIlvane, eds. Greenwich, CN: Ablex.

Cohen, P. 1983 A Calculating People: The Spread of Numeracy in Early America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Dooling, D.J., and R.Lachman 1971 Effects of comprehension on retention of prose. Journal of Experimental Psychology 88:216–222.

Dunbar, K. 1996 Problem Solving Among Geneticists. Paper prepared for the Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning for the Sciences of Science Learning: An Interdisciplinary Discussion .

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Dweck, C.S. 1989 Motivation. Pp. 87–136 in Foundations for a Psychology of Education, A. Lesgold and R.Glaser, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Eich, E. 1985 Context, memory, and integrated item/context imagery. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 11:764–770.

Erickson, F., and G.Mohatt 1982 Cultural organization and participation structures in two classrooms of Indian students. Pp. 131–174 in Doing the Ethnography of Schooling, G. Spindler, ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Ericsson, K., W.Chase, and S.Faloon 1980 Acquisition of a memory skill. Science 208:1181–1182.

Ericsson, K.A., R.T.Krampe, and C.Tesch-Romer 1993 The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review 100:363–406.


Fasheh, M. 1990 Community education: To reclaim and transform what has been made invisible. Harvard Educational Review 60:19–35.

Fishbein, E., M.Deri, M.S.Nello, and M.S.Marino 1985 The role of implicit models in solving verbal problems in multiplication and division. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 16(1) (January):3–17.

Flavell, J.H. 1973 Metacognitive aspects of problem-solving. In The Nature of Intelligence, L.B.Resnick, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.


Gagné, R., and J.J.Gibson 1947 Research on the recognition of aircraft. In Motion Picture Training and Research, J.J.Gibson, ed. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Garner, W.R. 1974 The Processing of Information and Structure. Potomac, MD: Erlbaum.

Gee, J.P. 1989 What is literacy? Journal of Education 171:18–25.

Gelman, R. 1967 Conservation acquisition: A problem of learning to attend to the relevant attributes. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 7:167–187.

Gibson, J.J, and E.J.Gibson 1955 Perceptual learning: Differentiation or enrichment. Psychological Review 62:32–51.

Gick, M.L., and K.J.Holyoak 1980 Analogical problem solving. Cognitive Psychology 12:306–355.

1983 Schema induction and analogical transfer. Cognitive Psychology 15:1–38.

Gragg, C.I. 1940 Because wisdom can’t be told. Harvard Alumni Bulletin (October 19): 78– 84.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Greenfield, P.M., and L.K.Suzuki 1998 Culture and human development: Implications for parenting, education, pediatrics, and mental health. Pp. 1059–1109 in Handbook of Child Psychology (Vol. 4), I.E.Sigel and K.A.Renninger, eds. New York: Wiley and Sons.

Hallinger, P., K.Leithwood, and J.Murphy, eds. 1993 Cognitive Perspectives on Educational Leadership. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University.

Heath, S.B. 1983 Ways with Words: Language, Life, and Work in Communities and Classrooms. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Hendrickson, G., and W.H.Schroeder 1941 Transfer of training in learning to hit a submerged target. Journal of Educational Psychology 32:205–213.

Hestenes, D., M.Wells, and G.Swackhamer 1992 Force concept inventory. The Physics Teacher 30(March):159–166.

Hmelo, C.E. 1995 Problem-based learning: Development of knowledge and reasoning strategies. Pp. 404–408 in Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Pittsburgh, PA: Erlbaum.

Holyoak, K.J. 1984 Analogical thinking and human intelligence. Pp. 199–230 in Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence (Vol. 2), R.J.Sternberg, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.


Judd, C.H. 1908 The relation of special training to general intelligence. Educational Review 36:28–42.


Klahr, D., and S.M.Carver 1988 Cognitive objectives in a LOGO debugging curriculum: Instruction, learning, and transfer. Cognitive Psychology 20:362–404.

Klausmeier, H.J. 1985 Educational Psychology (5th ed.). New York: Harper and Row.


Lave, J. 1988 Cognition in Practice: Mind, Mathematics, and Culture in Everyday Life. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Lave, J., M.Murtaugh, and O.de la Rocha 1984 The dialectic of arithmetic in grocery shopping. Pp. 67–94 in Everyday Cognition, B.Rogoff and J.Lave, eds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Lee, C.D., and D.Slaughter-Defoe 1995 Historical and sociocultural influences of African American education. Pp. 348–371 in Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education, J.A.Banks and C.M.Banks, eds. New York: Macmillan.

Lionni, L. 1970 Fish Is Fish. New York: Scholastic Press.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Littlefield, J., V.Delclos, S.Lever, K.Clayton, J.Bransford, and J.Franks 1988 Learning LOGO: Method of teaching, transfer of general skills, and attitudes toward school and computers. Pp. 111–135 in Teaching and Learning Computer Programming, R.E.Mayer, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Luchins, A.S. and Luchins, E.H. 1970 Wertheimer’s Seminar Revisited: Problem Solving and Thinking (Vol. 1). Albany, NY: State University of New York.

Mayer, R.E. 1988 Introduction to research on teaching and learning computer programming. Pp. 1–12 in Teaching and Learning Computer Programming: Multiple Research Perspectives, R.E.Mayer, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

McCombs, B.L. 1996 Alternative perspectives for motivation. Pp. 67–87 in Developing Engaged Readers in School and Home Communities, L.Baker, P.Afflerback, and D. Reinking, eds. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Mestre, J.P. 1994 Cognitive aspects of learning and teaching science. Pp. 3–1–3–53 in Teacher Enhancement for Elementary and Secondary Science and Mathematics: Status, Issues, and Problems, S.J.Fitzsimmons and L.C.Kerpelman, eds. NSF 94–80. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation.

Michaels, S. 1981 a “Sharing time,” children’s narrative styles and differential access to literacy. Language in Society 10:423–442.

1981b Discourses of the Seasons. Technical report. Urbana, IL: Reading Research and Education Center.

1986 Narrative presentations: An oral preparation for literacy with first graders. Pp. 94–115 in The Social Construction of Literacy, J.Cook-Gumperz, ed. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Moll, L.C., J.Tapia, and K.F.Whitmore 1993 Living knowledge: The social distribution of cultural sources for thinking. Pp. 139–163 in Distributed Cognitions, G.Salomon, ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Moll, L.C., and K.F.Whitmore 1993 Vygotsky in classroom practice. Moving from individual transmission to social transaction. Pp. 19–42 in Contexts for Learning, E.A.Forman, N. Minick, and C.A.Stone, eds. New York: Oxford University Press.


National Research Council 1994 Learning, Remembering, Believing: Enhancing Human Performance, D. Druckman, and R.A.Bjork, eds. Committee on Techniques for the Enhancement of Human Performance, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Newman, D., P.Griffin, and M.Cole 1989 The Construction Zone: Working for Cognitive Change in School New York: Cambridge University Press. Norman, D.A.

1993 Things That Make Us Smart: Defending Human Attributes in the Age of the Machine. New York: Addison-Wesley.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Novick, L.R., and K.J.Holyoak 1991 Mathematical problem solving by analogy. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 17(3)(May):398–415.

Palinscar, A.S., and A.L.Brown 1984 Reciprocal teaching of comprehension monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction 1:117–175.

Papert, S. 1980 Mindstorms: Computers, Children, and Powerful Ideas. New York: Basic Books.

Patel, V.L., D.R.Kaufman, and S.A.Magder 1996 The acquisition of medical expertise in complex dynamic environments. Pp. 127–165 in The Road to Excellence: The Acquisition of Expert Performance in the Arts and Sciences, Sports and Games, K.A.Ericsson, ed. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Perfetto, G.A., J.D.Bransford, and J.J.Franks 1983 Constraints on access in a problem solving context. Memory and Cognition 11:24–31.

Pezdek, K. and L.Miceli 1982 Life span differences in memory integration as a function of processing time. Developmental Psychology 18(3)(May):485–490.

Pintrich, P.R., and D.Schunk 1996 Motivation in Education: Theory, Research and Application. Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall.

Polya, G. 1957 How to Solve It: A New Aspect of Mathematical Method. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.


Resnick, L.B. 1987 Education and Learning to Think. Committee on Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Available: http://www.nap.edu.

Resnick, L.B., V.L.Bill, S.B.Lesgold, and M.N.Leer 1991 Thinking in arithmetic class. Pp. 27–53 in Teaching Advanced Skills to At-Risk Students, B.Means. C.Chelemer, and M.S.Knapp, eds. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Rogoff, B. 1990 Apprenticeship in Thinking: Cognitive Development in Social Context. New York: Oxford University Press.

1998 Cognition as a collaborative process. Pp. 679–744 in Handbook of Child Psychology: Cognition, Perception, and Language (5th ed.), W.Damon, D.Kuhn, and R.S.Siegler, eds. New York: Wiley.


Saxe, G.B. 1990 Culture and Cognitive Development: Studies in Mathematical Understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Scardamalia, M., C.Bereiter, and R.Steinbach 1984 Teachability of reflective processes in written composition. Cognitive Science 8:173–190.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Schliemann, A.D., and N.M.Acioly 1989 Mathematical knowledge developed at work: The contribution of practice versus the contribution of schooling. Cognition and Instruction 6:185–222.

Schoenfeld, A.H. 1983 Problem solving in the mathematics curriculum: A report, recommendation and an annotated bibliography. Mathematical Association of America Notes, No. 1.

1985 Mathematical Problem Solving. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

1991 On mathematics as sense-making: An informal attack on the unfortunate divorce of formal and informal mathematics. Pp. 311–343 in Informal Reasoning and Education, J.F.Voss, D.N.Perkins, and J.W.Segal, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Schwartz, D., and J.D.Bransford 1998 A time for telling. Cognition and Instruction 16(4):475–522.

Schwartz, D.L., X.Lin, S.Brophy, and J.D.Bransford 1999 Toward the development of flexibly adaptive instructional designs. Pp. 183–213 in Instructional Design Theories and Models: Volume II, C.M. Reigelut, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Scribner, S. 1984 Studying working intelligence. Pp. 9–40 in Everyday Cognition, B.Rogoff and J.Lave, eds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Silver, E.A., L.J.Shapiro, and A.Deutsch 1993 Sense making and the solution of division problems involving remainders: An examination of middle school students’ solution processes and their interpretations of solutions. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 24(2):117–135.

Simon, H.A. 1972 On the development of the processes. In Information Processing in Children, L.B.Resnick and L.E.Klopfer, eds. Alexandria, VA: ASCD Books.

Simon, H.A., and W.G.Chase 1973 Skill in chess. American Scientist 61:394–403.

Singley, K., and J.R.Anderson 1989 The Transfer of Cognitive Skill Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Spiro, R.J., P.L.Feltovich, M.J.Jackson, and R.L.Coulson 1991 Cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and hypertext: Random access instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. Educational Technology 31(5):24–33.

Suina, J.H. 1988 And then I went to school. Pp. 295–299 in Cultural and Linguistic Influences on Learning Mathematics, R.R.Cocking and J.P.Mestre, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Suina, J.H., and L.B.Smolkin 1994 From natal culture to school culture to dominant society culture: Supporting transitions for Pueblo Indian students. Pp. 115–130 in Cross-cultural Roots of Minority Child Development, P.M.Greenfield and R.R.Cocking, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Tate, W. 1994 Race, retrenchment, and the reform of school mathematics. Phi Delta Kappan 75:477–486.

Taylor, O., and D.Lee 1987 Standardized tests and African American children: Communication and language issues. Negro Educational Review 38:67–80.

Thorndike, E.L. 1913 Educational Psychology (Vols. 1 and 2). New York: Columbia University Press.

Thorndike, E.L., and R.S.Woodworth 1901 The influence of improvement in one mental function upon the efficiency of other functions. Psychological Review 8:247–261.


Vosniadou, S., and W.F.Brewer 1989 The Concept of the Earth’s Shape: A study of Conceptual Change in Childhood. Unpublished paper. Center for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois.


Wandersee, J.H. 1983 Students’ misconceptions about photosynthesis: A cross-age study. Pp. 441–465 in Proceedings of the International Seminar on Misconceptions in Science and Mathematics, H.Helm and J.Novak eds. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University.

Wason, P.C., and P.N.Johnson-Laird 1972 Psychology of Reasoning: Structure and Content. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wertheimer, M. 1959 Productive Thinking. New York: Harper and Row.

White, B.Y., and J.R.Frederickson 1998 Inquiry, modeling and metacognition: Making science accessible to all students. Cognition and Instruction 16(1):3–117.

White, R.W. 1959 Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review 66:297–333.

Williams, S.M. 1992 Putting case-based instruction into context: Examples from legal and medical education. The Journal of the Learning Sciences 2(4):367–427.

Wineburg, Samuel S. 1989a Are cognitive skills context-bound? Educational Researcher 18(1):16–25.

1989b Remembrance of theories past. Educational Researcher 18:7–10.

1996 The psychology of learning and teaching history. Pp. 423–437 in Handbook of Research in Educational Psychology, D.Berliner and R.Calfee, eds. NY: Macmillan.

Woodworth, R.S. 1938 Experimental Psychology. New York, NY: Holt.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

CHAPTER 4

Ashcraft, M.H. 1985 Is it farfetched that some of us remember arithmetic facts? Journal for Research in Mathematical Education 16:99–105.

Au, K. 1981 Participant structures in a reading lesson with Hawaiian children. Anthropology and Education Quarterly 2:91–115.

Au, K., and C.Jordan 1981 Teaching reading to Hawaiian children: Finding a culturally appropriate solution. Pp. 139–152 in Culture and the Bilingual Classroom: Studies in Classroom Ethnography, H.Tureba, G.Guthrie, and K.Au, eds. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.


Bahrick, L.E., and J.N.Pickens 1988 Classification of bimodal English and Spanish language passages by infants. Infant Behavior and Development 11:277–296.

Baillargeon, R. 1995 Physical reasoning in infancy. Pp. 181–204 in The Cognitive Neurosciences, M.S.Gazzaniga, ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Baillargeon, R., A.Needham, and J.DeVos 1992 The development of young infants’ intuitions about support. Early Development Parenting 1:69–78.

Bates, E., V.Carlson-Luden, and I.Bretherton 1980 Perceptual aspects of tool using in infancy. Infant Behavior and Development 3:121–140.

Belmont, J.M., and E.C.Butterfield 1971 Learning strategies as determinants of memory deficiencies. Cognitive Psychology 2:411–420.

Bereiter, C., and M.Scardamalia 1989 Intentional learning as a goal of instruction. Pp. 361–392 in Knowing, Learning, and Instruction, L.B.Resnick, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bertenthal, B.I. 1993 Infants’ perception of biomechanical motions: Instrinsic image and knowledge-based constraints. In Carnegie-Mellon Symposia in Cognition, Vol. 23: Visual Perception and Cognition in Infancy, C.E.Granrud, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bidell, T.R., and K.W.Fischer 1997 Between nature and nurture: The role of human agency in the epigenesis of intelligence. Pp. 193–242 in Intelligence, Heredity, and Environment, R.J.Sternberg and E.L.Grigorenko, eds. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Bijou, S., and D.M.Baer 1961 Child Development: Vol. 1: A Systematic and Empirical Theory. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Brown, A.L. 1975 The development of memory: Knowing, knowing about knowing, and knowing how to know. In Advances in Child Development and Behavior (Vol. 10), H.W.Reese, ed. New York: Academic Press.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

1978 Knowing when, and how to remember: A problem of metacognition. Pp. 77–165 in Advances in Instructional Psychology (Vol. 1), R.Glaser, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

1990 Domain-specific principles affect learning and transfer in children. Cognitive Science 14:107–133.

Brown, A.L., and J.C.Campione 1994 Guided discovery in a community of learners. Pp. 229–270 in Classroom Lessons: Integrating Cognitive Theory and Classroom Practice, K.McGilly, ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

1996 Psychological theory and the design of innovative learning environments: On procedures, principles, and systems. Pp. 289–325 in Innovations in Learning: New Environments for Education, L.Schauble and R.Glaser, eds. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Brown, A.L., and J.D.Day 1984 Macrorules for summarizing texts: The development of expertise. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22:1–14.

Brown, A.L., J.D.Bransford, R.A.Ferrara, and J.C.Campione 1983 Learning, remembering, and understanding. Pp. 78–166 in Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol. 3 Cognitive Development (4th ed.), J.H.Flavell and E.M.Markman, eds. New York: Wiley.

Brown, A.L., and J.S.DeLoache 1978 Skills, plans, and self-regulation. Pp. 3–35 in Children’s Thinking: What Develops? R.Siegler, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Brown, A.L., and S.Q.C.Lawton 1977 The feeling of knowing experience in educable retarded children. Developmental Psychology 11:401–412.

Brown, A.L., and R.A.Reeve 1987 Bandwidths of competence: The role of supportive contexts in learning and development. Pp. 173–223 in Development and Learning: Conflict or Congruence? The Jean Piaget Symposium Series, L.S.Liben, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Brown, R. 1958 Words and Things. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.

Bruner, J.S. 1972 Toward a sense of community. Review of Gartner et al. (1971), “Children Teach Children.” Saturday Review 55:62–63.

1981 a Intention in the structure of action and interaction. In Advances in Infancy Research, Vol. 1, L.P.Lipsitt, ed. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

1981b The organization of action and the nature of adult-infant transaction: Festschrift for J.R.Nuttin . Pp. 1–13 in Cognition in Human Motivation and Learning, D.d’Ydewalle and W.Lens, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

1983 Child’s Talk: Learning to Use Language. New York: Norton.

Byrnes, J.P. 1996 Cognitive Development and Learning in Instructional Contexts. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Callanan, M.A. 1985 How parents label objects for young children: The role of input in the acquisition of category hierarchies. Child Development 56:508–523.

Canfield, R.L., and E.G.Smith 1996 Number-based expectations and sequential enumeration by 5-month-old infants. Developmental Psychology 32:269–279.

Carey, S., and R.Gelman 1991 The Epigenesis of Mind: Essays on Biology and Cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Case, R. 1992 The Mind’s Staircase: Exploring the Conceptual Underpinning of Children’s Thought and Knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Chapman, R.S. 1978 Comprehension strategies in children. Pp. 308–329 in Speech and Language in the Laboratory, School, and Clinic, J.Kavanaugh and W.Strange, eds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Chi, M.T.H. 1978 Knowledge structures and memory development. Pp. 73–96 in Children’s Thinking: What Developes, R.Siegler, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1994 From visual word problems to learning communities: Changing conceptions of cognitive research. Pp. 157–200 in Classroom Lessons: Integrating Cognitive Theory and Classroom Practice, K.McGilly, ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.

Cohen, A. 1994 The Effect of a Teacher-Designed Assessment Tool on an Instructor’s Cognitive Activity While Using CSILE. Unpublished paper.

Cohen, M.N. 1995 Lewis Carroll: A Biography. New York: Knopf.

Colombo, J., and R.S.Bundy 1983 Infant response to auditing familiarity and novelty. Infant Behavior 6:305– 311.

Cooney, J.B., H.L.Swanson, and S.F.Ladd 1988 Acquisition of mental multiplication skill: Evidence for the transition between counting and retrieval strategies. Cognition and Instruction 5(4):323– 345.

Coyle, T.R., and D.F.Bjorklund 1997 The development of strategic memory: A modified microgenetic assessment of utilization deficiencies. Cognitive Development 11 (2):295–314.


DeLoache, J.S. 1984 What’s this? Maternal questions in joint picturebook reading with toddlers. Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory for Comparative Human Cognition 6:87–95.

DeLoache, J.S., D.J.Cassidy, and A.L.Brown 1985a Precursors of mnemonic strategies in very young children’s memory. Child Development 56:125–137.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

DeLoache, J.S., K.F.Miller, and S.L.Pierroutsakos 1998 Reasoning and problem-solving. Pp. 801–850 in Handbook of Child Psychology (Vol. 2), D.Kuhn and R.S.Siegler, eds. New York: Wiley.

DeLoache, J.S., S.Sugarman, and A.L.Brown 1985b The development of error correction strategies in young children’s manipulative play. Child Development 56:928–939.

Dichter-Blancher, T.B., N.A.Bush-Rossnagel, and Knauf-Jensen 1997 Mastery-motivation: Appropriate tasks for toddlers. Infant Behavior and Development 20(4):545–548.

Dweck, C.S. 1989 Motivation. Pp. 87–136 in Foundations for a Psychology of Education, A. Lesgold and R.Glaser, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Dweck, C., and E.Elliott 1983 Achievement motivation. Pp. 643–691 in Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. IV: Socialization, Personality, and Social Development, P.H.Mussen, ed. New York: Wiley.

Dweck, C., and E.Legget 1988 A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review 95:256–273.

Edwards, C.P. 1987 Culture and the construction of moral values: A comparative ethnography of moral encounters in two cultural settings. Pp. 123–150 in Emergence of Morality in Young Children, J.Kagan and L.Lamb, eds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Eimas, P.D., E.R.Siqueland, P.W.Jusczyk, and J.Vigorito 1971 Speech perception in infants. Science 171:303–306.

Eisenberg, A.R. 1985 Learning to describe past experiences in conversation. Discourse Processes 8:177–204.

Engle, S. 1995 The Stories Children Tell: Making Sense of the Narratives of Childhood. New York: Freeman.


Fantz, R.L. 1961 The origin of form perception. Scientific American 204:66–72.

Flavell, J.H., and H.M.Wellman 1977 Metamemory. Pp. 3–33 in Perspectives on the Development of Memory and Cognition, R.V.Kail and J.W.Hagen, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.


Gardner, H. 1983 Frames of Mind. New York: Basic Books.

1991 The Unschooled Mind: How Children Think, and How Schools Should Teach. New York: Basic Books.

1997 Extraordinary Minds: Portraits of Exceptional Individuals and an Examination of Our Extraordinariness. New York: Basic Books.

Geary, D. 1994 Children’s Mathematical Development: Research and Practice Applications. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Geary, D.C., and M.Burlingham-Dubree 1989 External validation of the strategy choice model for addition. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 47:175–192.

Gelman, R. 1990 First principles organize attention to and learning about relevant data: Number and the animate-inanimate distinction as examples. Cognitive Science 14:79–106.

Gelman, R., and A.L.Brown 1986 Changing views of cognitive competence in the young. Pp. 175–207 in Discoveries and Trends in Behavioral and Social Sciences, N.Smelser and D.Gerstein, eds. Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Gelman, R., and C.R.Gallistel 1978 The Child’s Understanding of Number. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Gelman, S.A. 1988 The development of induction within natural kind and artifact categories. Cognitive Psychology 20:65–95.

Gibson, E.J. 1969 Principles of Perceptual Learning and Development. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Goldman, S.R., J.W.Pelligrino, and D.L.Mertz 1988 Extended practices of basic addition facts: Strategy changes in learning disabled students. Cognition and Instruction 5:223–265.

Gopnik, M. 1990 Feature-blind grammar and sysphasia. Nature 344:615.

Griffin, S., and R.Case 1997 Wrap-Up: Using peer commentaries to enhance models of mathematics teaching and learning. Issues in Education 3(1):115–134.

Griffin, S., R.Case, and A.Capodilupo 1992 Rightstart: A program designed to improve children’s conceptual structure on which this performance depends. In Development and Learning Environments, S.Strauss, ed. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Groen, G.J., and L.B.Resnick 1977 Can preschool children invent addition algorithms? Journal of Educational Psychology 69:645–652.

Hatano, G., and K.Inagaki 1996 Cultural Contexts of Schooling Revisited: A Review of the Learning Gap from a Cultural Psychology Perspective. Paper presented at the Conference on Global Prospects for Education: Development, Culture and Schooling. University of Michigan.

Heath, S.B. 1981 Questioning at home and school: A comprehensive study. In Doing Ethnography: Educational Anthopology in Action, G.Spindler, ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

1983 Ways with Words: Language, Life, and Work in Communities and Classrooms. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Hoff-Ginsberg, E., and M.Shatz 1982 Linguistic input and the child’s acquisition of language. Psychological Bulletin 92(1) (July):3–26.

John-Steiner, V. 1984 Learning styles among Pueblo children. Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition 6:57–62.

Jorm, A.F., and D.L.Share 1983 Phonological receding and reading acquisition. Applied Psycholinguistics 4(2)(June):103–147.


Kahan, L.D., and D.D.Richards 1986 The effects of context on referential communication strategies. Child Development 57(5)(October):1130–1141.

Kalnins, I.V., and J.S.Bruner 1973 The coordination of visual observation and instrumental behavior in early infancy. Perception 2:307–314.

Karmiloff-Smith, A. 1992 Beyond Modularity: A Developmental Perspective on Cognitive Science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Karmiloff-Smith, A., and B.Inhelder 1974 If you want to get ahead, get a theory. Cognition 3:195–212.

Klahr, D., and J.G.Wallace 1973 The role of quantification operators in the development of conservation of quantity. Cognitive Psychology 4:301–327.

Kolstad, V., and R.Baillargeon 1994 Appearance- and Knowledge-Based Responses to Containers in 5 1/2- to 8 1/2-Month-Old Infants. Unpublished paper.

Kuhara-Koijma, K., and G.Hatano 1989 Strategies of recognizing sentences among high and low critical thinkers. Japanese Psychological Research 3(1):1–9.

Kuhl, P.K., K.A.Williams, F.Lacerda, N.Stevens, and B.Lindblom 1992 Linguistic experience alters phonetic perception in infants by 6 months of age. Science 255:606–608.

Kuhn, D., ed. 1995 Development and learning: Reconceptualizing the intersection: Introduction. Human Development 38(special issue):293–294.


Lave, J., and E.Wenger 1991 Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Lehrer, R., and L.Schauble 1996 Developing Model-Based Reasoning in Mathematics and Science. Paper prepared for the Workshop on the Sciences of Science of Learning. National Research Council, Washington, DC.

Lemaire, P., and R.S.Siegler 1995 Four aspects of strategic change: Contributions to children’s learning of multiplication. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 124(1) (March):83–97.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Leslie, A.M. 1994a Pretending and believing: Issues in the theory ToMM. Cognition 50:211– 238.

1994b ToMM, ToBy, and agency: Core architecture and domain specificity. Pp. 119–148 in Domain Specificity in Cognition and Culture, L.A.Hirshfeld and S.Gelman, eds.

Lewis, M., and R.Freedle 1973 Mother-infant dyad: The cradle of meaning. Pp. 127–155 in Communication and Affect, P.Pliner, ed. New York: Academic Press.

Linberg, M. 1980 The role of knowledge structure in the ontogeny of learning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 30:401–410.

MacNamara, J. 1972 Cognitive bases of language learning in infants. Psychological Review 79(1):1–13.

Mandler, J.M. 1996 Development of categorization: Perceptual and conceptual categories. In Infant Development: Recent Advances, G.Bremner, A.Slater, and G. Butterworth, eds. Hove, England: Erlbaum.

Massey, C.M., and R.Gelman 1988 Preschoolers decide whether pictured unfamiliar objects can move themselves. Developmental Psychology 24:307–317.

Mayes, L.C., R.Feldman, R.N.Granger, M.H.Bornstein, and R.Schottenfeld 1998 The effects of polydrug use with and without cocaine on the mother-infant interaction at 3 and 6 months. Infant Behavior and Development 20(4):489– 502.

McNamee, G.D. 1980 The Social Origins of Narrative Skills. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Northwestern University.

Mehan, H. 1979 Learning Lessons: Social Organization in the Classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Mehler, J., and A.Christophe 1995 Maturation and learning of language in the first year of life. Pp. 943–954 in The Cognitive Neurosciences, M.S.Gazzaniga, ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Mervis, C.B. 1984 Early lexical development: The contributions of mother and child. Pp. 339–370 in Origins of Cognitive Skills, C.Sophian, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Miller, G.A. 1956 The magical number seven, plus or minus two. Some limits on our capacity to process information. Psychological Review 63:81–87.

Moll, L.C. and K.Whitmore 1993 Vygotsky in classroom practice: Moving from indidividual transmission to social transaction. Pp. 19–42 in Contexts for Learning, E.A.Forman, N. Minick, and C.A.Stone, eds. New York: Oxford University Press.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

National Research Council 1998 Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children, C.E.Snow, M.S.Burns, and P.Griffin, eds. Committee on Prevention of Reading Difficulties in Young Children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Needham, A., and R.Baillargeon 1993 Intuitions about support in 4 1/2-month-old infants. Cognition 47:121–148.

Nelson, K. 1986 Event Knowledge: Structure and Function in Development. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Newell, A., J.C.Shaw, and H.A.Simon 1958 Elements of a theory of human problem solving. Psychological Review 65:151–166.

Newell, A., and H.A.Simon 1972 Human Problem Solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Newman, D., P.Griffin, and M.Cole 1989 The Construction Zone: Working for Cognitive Change in School. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Newsweek 1996 How kids are wired for music, math, and emotions, by E.Begley. Newsweek (February 19):55–61.

Ninio, A., and J.S.Bruner 1978 The achievement and antecedents of labeling. Child Development 24(2):131– 144.


Ochs, E., and B.B.Schieffelin 1984 Language acquisition and socialization: Three developmental stories and their implications. Pp. 276–320 in Culture and Its Acquisition, R.Shweder and R.Levine, eds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Ohlsson, S. 1991 Young Adults’ Understanding of Evolutional Explanations: Preliminary Observations. Unpublished paper. Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh.


Palinscar, A.S., and A.L.Brown 1984 Reciprocal teaching of comprehension monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction 1:117–175.

Papousek, M., H.Papousek, and M.H.Bornstein 1985 The naturalistic vocal environment of young infants. Pp. 269–298 in Social Perception in Infants, T.M.Field and N.Fox, eds. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Pascual-Leone, J. 1988 Affirmations and negations, disturbances and contradictions in understanding Piaget: Is his later theory causal? Contemporary Psychology 33:420–421.

Piaget, J. 1952 The Origins of Intelligence in Children, M.Cook, trans. New York: International Universities Press.

1970 Piaget’s theory. In Carmichael’s Manual of Child Psychology, P.H.Musen, ed. New York: Wiley.

1977 The Grasp of Consciousness. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

1978 Success and Understanding. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Pressley, M.J., P.B.El-Dinary, M.B.Marks, R.Brown, and S.Stein 1992 Good strategy instruction is motivating and interesting. Pp. 333–358 in The Role of Interest in Learning and Development, K.A.Renninger, S.Hidi, and A.Krapp, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Reder, L. and J.R.Anderson 1980 A comparison of texts and their summaries: Memorial consequences. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 198:121–134.

Resnick, L.B., and W.W.Ford 1981 The Psychology of Mathematics Instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Resnick, L.B., and S.Nelson-LeGall 1998 Socializing intelligences. In Piaget, Vygotsky, and Beyond: Future Issues for Developmental Psychology and Education, L.Smith, J.Dockrell, and P. Tomlinson, eds. London, UK: Routledge.

Rogoff, B. 1990 Apprenticeship in Thinking: Cognitive Development in Social Context. New York: Oxford University Press.

Rogoff, B., C.Malkin, and K.Gilbride 1984 Interaction with babies as guidance in development. Pp. 31–44 in Children’s Learning in the “Zone of Proximal Development” B.Rogoff and J.V.Wertsch, eds. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Rogoff, B., J.Mistry, A.Goncu, and C.Mosier 1993 Guided Participation in Cultural Activity by Toddlers and Caregivers. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 58(7): Serial no. 236.

Rogoff, B., and J.V.Wertsch, eds. 1984 Childrens’ Learning in the “Zone of Proximal Development.” San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Rovee-Collier, C. 1989 The joy of kicking: Memories, motives, and mobiles. Pp. 151–180 in Memory: Interdisciplinary Approaches, P.R.Solomon, G.R.Goethals, C.M. Kelly, and B.R.Stephens, eds. New York: Springer-Verlag.


Salomon, G. 1993 No distribution without individuals’ cognition: A dynamic interactional view. Pp. 111–138 in Distributed Cognitions. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Saxe, G.B., M.Gearhart, and S.B.Guberman 1984 The social organization of early number development. Pp. 19–30 in Children’s Learning in the “Zone of Proximal Development” B.Rogoff and J.V.Wertsch, eds. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Schaffer, H., ed. 1977 Studies in Infant-Mother Interaction. London: Academic Press.

Schauble, L. 1990 Belief revision in children: The role of prior knowledge and strategies for generating evidence. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 49:31–57.

Schilling, T.H., and R.K.Clifton 1998 Nine-month-old infants learn about a physical event in a single session: Implications for infants’ understanding of physical phenomena. Cognitive Development 133:165–184.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Shultz, T.R. 1982 Rules for causal attribution. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 47:serial no. 194.

Siegler, R.S. 1988 Individual differences in strategy choices: Good students, not-so-good students, and perfectionists. Child Development 59:833–851.

1996 A grand theory of development. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 61:266–275.

Siegler, R.S., ed. 1978 Children’s Thinking: What Develops? Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Siegler, R.S., and K.Crowley 1991 The microgenetic method: A direct means for studying cognitive development. American Psychologist 46:606–620.

1994 Constraints on learning in nonprivileged domains. Cognitive Psychology 27:194–226.

Siegler, R.S., and K.McGilly 1989 Strategy choices in children’s time-telling. In Time and Human Cognition: A Life-span Perspective, I.Levin and D.Zakay, eds. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier.

Siegler, R.S., and M.Robinson 1982 The development of numerical understanding. In Advances in Child Development and Behavior, H.W.Reese and L.P.Lipsitt, eds. New York: Academic Press.

Simon, H.A. 1972 On the development of the processes. In Information Processing in Children, S.Farnham-Diggory, ed. New York: Academic Press.

Skinner, B.F. 1950 Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological Review 57:193–216.

Sophian, C. 1994 Children’s Numbers. Madison, WI: WCB Brown and Benchmark.

Spelke, E.S. 1990 Principles of object perception. Cognitive Science 14:29–56.

Starkey, P. 1992 The early development of numerical reasoning. Cognition 43:93–126.

Starkey, P., and R.Gelman 1982 The development of addition and subtraction abilities prior to formal schooling. In Addition and Subtraction: A Developmental Perspective, T.P. Carpenter, J.M.Moser, and T.A.Romberg, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Starkey, P., E.S.Spelke, and R.Gelman 1990 Numerical abstraction by human infants. Cognition 36:97–127.

Suina, J.H. 1988 And then I went to school. Pp. 295–299 in Cultural and Linguistic Influences on Learning Mathematics, R.R.Cocking and J.P.Mestre, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Suina, J.H., and L.B.Smolkin 1994 From natal culture to school culture to dominant society culture: Supporting transitions for Pueblo Indian students. Pp. 115–130 in Cross-Cultural

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Roots of Minority Child Development, P.M.Greenfield and R.R.Cocking, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Vygotsky, L.S. 1978 Mind in Society. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.


Walden, T.A., and T.A.Ogan 1988 The development of social referencing. Child Development 59:1230–1240.

Ward, M. 1971 Them Children. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Wellman, H.M. 1990 The Child’s Theory of Mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Wellman, H.M., and S.A.Gelman 1992 Cognitive development: Foundational theories of core domains. Annual Review of Psychology 43:337–375.

Wellman, H.M., and A.K.Hickey 1994 The mind’s “I”: Children’s conceptions of the mind as an active agent. Child Development 65:1564–1580.

Wellman, H.M., K.Ritter, and J.H.Flavell 1975 Deliberate memory behavior in the delayed reactions of very young children. Developmental Psychology 11:780–787.

White, R.W. 1959 Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review 66:297–333.

Wood, D., J.S.Bruner, and G.Ross 1976 The role of tutoring in problem-solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 17:89–100.

Wright, J.C., and A.C.Huston 1995 Effects of Educational TV Viewing of Lower Income Preschoolers on Academic Skills, School Readiness, and School Adjustment One to Three Years Later. A report to Children’s Television Workshop. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas.

Wynn, K. 1990 Children’s understanding of counting. Cognition 36:155–193.

1992a Addition and subtraction by human infants. Nature 358:749–750.

1992b Evidence against empirical accounts of the origins of numerical knowledge. Mind and Language 7:209–227.

1996 Infants’ individuation and enumeration of actions. Psychological Science 7:164–169.


Yarrow, L.J., and D.J.Messer 1983 Motivation and cognition in infancy. Pp. 451–477 in Origins of Intelligence: Infancy and Early Childhood, M.Lewis, ed. New York: Plenum.

CHAPTER 5

Bach-y-Rita, P. 1980 Brain plasticity as a basis for therapeutic procedures. In Recovery of Function: Theoretical Considerations for Brain Injury Rehabilitation, P.Bachy-Rita, ed. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

1981 Brain plasticity as a basis of the development of rehabilitation procedures for hemiplegia. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 13:73– 83.

Beaulieu, C., and M.Colonnier 1987 Effects of the richness of the environment on the cat visual cortex. Journal of Comparative Neurology 266:478–494.

Beaulieu, C., and M.Cynader 1990 Effect of the richness of the environment on neurons in cat visual cortex. I. Receptive field properties. Developmental Brain Research 53:71–81.

Bellugi, U. 1980 Clues from the similarities between signed and spoken language. In Signed and Spoken Language: Biological Constraints on Linguistic Form, U.Bellugi and M.Studdert-Kennedy, eds. Weinheim, Germany: Venlag Chemie.

Black, J.E., K.R.Isaacs, B.J.Anderson, A.A.Alcantara, and W.T.Greenough 1990 Learning causes synaptogenesis, whereas motor activity causes angiogenesis, in cerebellar cortex of adult rats. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 87:5568–5572.

Black, J.E., A.M.Sirevaag, and W.T.Greenough 1987 Complex experience promotes capillary formation in young rat visual cortex. Neuroscience Letters 83:351–355.

Blakemore, C. 1977 Mechanics of the Mind. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Bruer, J.T. 1997 Education and the brain: A bridge too far. Educational Researcher 26(8)(November):4–16.

Cardellichio, T., and W.Field 1997 Seven strategies to enhance neural branching. Educational Leadership 54(6)(March).

Ceci, S.J. 1997 Memory: Reproductive, Reconstructive, and Constructive. Paper presented at a symposium, Recent Advances in Research on Human Memory, April 29, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.

Chang, F.L., and W.T.Greenough 1982 Lateralized effects of monocular training on dendritic branching in adult split-brain rats. Brain Research 232:283–292.

Crill, W.E., and M.E.Raichle 1982 Clinical evaluation of injury and recovery. In Repair and Regeneration of the Nervous System, J.G.Nicholls, ed. New York: Springer-Verlag.


Eisenberg, L. 1995 The social construction of the human brain. American Journal of Psychiatry 152:1563–1575.


Ferchmin, P.A., E.L.Bennett, and M.R.Rosenzweig 1978 Direct contact with enriched environment is required to alter cerebral weights in rats. Journal of Comparative and Psysiological Psychology 88:360–367.

Friedman, S.L., and R.R.Cocking 1986 Instructional influences on cognition and on the brain. Pp. 319–343 in The Brain, Cognition, and Education, S.L.Friedman, K.A.Klivington, and R.W. Peterson, eds. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Gibson, E.J. 1969 Principles of Perceptual Learning and Development. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Greenough, W.T. 1976 Enduring brain effects of differential experience and training. Pp. 255–278 in Neural Mechanisms of Learning and Memory, M.R.Rosenzweig and E.L. Bennett, eds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Greenough, W.T., J.M.Juraska, and F.R.Volkmar 1979 Maze training effects on dendritic branching in occipital cortex of adult rats. Behavioral and Neural Biology 26:287–297.


Hunt, J.M. 1961 Intelligence and experience. New York: Ronald Press.

Huttenlocher, P.R., and A.S.Dabholkar 1997 Regional differences in synaptogenesis in human cerebral cortex. Journal of Comparative Neurology 387:167–178.


Jones, T.A., and T.Schallert 1994 Use-dependent growth of pyramidal neurons after neocortex damage. Journal of Neuroscience 14:2140–2152.

Juraska, J.M. 1982 The development of pyramidal neurons after eye opening in the visitual cortex of hooded rats: A quantitative study. Journal of Comparative Neurology 212:208–213.


Kleim, J.A., E.Lussnig, E.R.Schwarz, T.A.Comery, and W.T.Greenough 1996 Synaptogenesis and Fos expression in the motor cortex of the adult rat following motor skill learning. Journal of Neuroscience 16:4529–4535.

Kolb, B. 1995 Brain Plasticity and Behavior. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Kuhl, P.K. 1993 Innate predispositions and the effects of experience in speech perception: The native language magnet theory. Pp. 259–274 in Developmental Neurocognition: Speech and Face Processing in the First Year of Life, B. deBoysson-Bardies, S.deSchonen, P.Juscyzyk, P.McNeilage, and J.Morton, eds. Dordrecht, NL: Kluwer Academic Publishers.


Lichtenstein, E.H., and W.F.Brewer 1980 Memory for goal-directed events. Cognitive Psychology 12:415–445.


Neville, H.J. 1984 Effects of early sensory and language experience on the development of the human brain. In Neonate Cognition: Beyond the Blooming Buzzing Confusion, J.Mehler and R.Fox, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

1995 Effects of Experience on the Development of the Visual Systems of the Brain on the Language Systems of the Brain. Paper presented in the series Brain Mechanisms Underlying School Subjects, Part 3. University of Oregon, Eugene.

Newsweek 1996 How kids are wired for music, math, and emotions, by E.Begley. Newsweek (February 19):55–61.

1997 How to build a baby’s brain, by E.Begley. Newsweek (Summer special issue):28–32.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Roediger, H. 1997 Memory: Explicit and Implicit. Paper presented at the Symposium, Recent Advances in Research on Human Memory, National Academy of Sciences. Washington, DC.

Rosenzweig, M.R., and E.L.Bennett 1972 Cerebral changes in rats exposed individually to an enriched environment. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 80:304–313.

1978 Experiential influences on brain anatomy and brain chemistry in rodents. Pp. 289–330 in Studies on the Development of Behavior and the Nervous System: Vol. 4. Early Influences, G.Gottlieb, ed. New York: Academic Press.


Schacter, D.L. 1997 Neuroimaging of Memory and Consciousness. Paper presented at the Symposium: Recent Advances in Research on Human Memory, National Academy of Sciences. Washington, DC.

Squire, L.R. 1997 Memory and Brain Systems. Paper presented at the Symposium: Recent Advances in Research on Human Memory, National Academy of Sciences. Washington, DC.

Sylwester, R. 1995 A Celebration of Neurons: An Educator’s Guide to the Human Brain. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria, VA.


Time 1997a The day-care dilemma, by J.Collins. Time (February 3):57–97.

1997b Fertile minds, by J.M.Nash. Time (February 3):49–56.

Turner, A.M., and W.Greenough 1985 Differential rearing effects on rat visual cortex synapses. I.Synaptic and neuronal density and synapses per neuron. Brain Research 328:195–203.

CHAPTER 6

Alcorta, M. 1994 Text writing from a Vygotskyan perspective: A sign-mediated operation. European Journal of Psychology of Education 9:331–341.

American Association for the Advancement of Science 1989 Science for All Americans: A Project 2061 Report on Literacy Goals in Science, Mathematics, and Technology. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Au, K., and C.Jordan 1981 Teaching reading to Hawaiian children: Finding a culturally appropriate solution. Pp. 139–152 in Culture and the Bilingual Classroom: Studies in Classroom Ethnography, H.Tureba, G.Guthrie, and K.Au, eds. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.


Bakhtin, M. 1984 Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Ballenger, C. 1997 Social identities, moral narratives, scientific argumentation: Science talk in a bilingual classroom. Language and Education 11(1):1–14.

Barron, B. 1991 Collaborative Problem Solving: Is Team Performance Greater Than What Is Expected from the Most Competent Member? Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Vanderbilt University.

Barron, B.J., D.L.Schwartz, N.J.Vye, A.Moore, A.Petrosino, L.Zech., J.D.Bransford, and Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1998 Doing with understanding: Lessons from research on problem and project-based learning. Journal of Learning Sciences 7(3 and 4):271–312.

Barth, R.S. 1988 School as a community of leaders. In Building a Professional Culture in Schools, A.Lieberman, ed. New York: Teachers College Press.

1991 Improving Schools from Within: Teachers, Parents, and Principals Can Make the Difference. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Baxter, G.P., and R.Glaser 1997 A Cognitive Framework for Performance Assessment. CSE Technical Report. National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing, Graduate School of Education, University of California, Los Angeles.

Beck, I.L., M.G.McKeown, and W.E.Gromoll 1989 Learning from social studies texts. Cognition and Instruction, 6:99–158.

Beck, I.L., M.G.McKeown, G.M.Sinatra, and J.A.Loxterman 1991 Revising social studies text from a text-processing perspective: Evidence of improved comprehensibility. Reading Research Quarterly 26:251–276.

Bell, A.W. 1982a Diagnosing students’ misconceptions. The Australian Mathematics Teacher 1:6–10.

1982b Treating students’ misconceptions. The Australian Mathematics Teacher 2:11–13.

1985 Some implications of research on the teaching of mathematics. Pp. 61–79 in Theory, Research and Practice in Mathematical Education, A.Bell, B. Low, and J.Kilpatrick, eds. Proceedings of Fifth International Congress on Mathematical Education, Adelaide, South Australia. Nottingham, England: Shell Centre for Mathematical Education, University of Nottingham.

Bell, A.W., D.O’Brien, and C.Shiu 1980 Designing teaching in the light of research on understanding. In Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, R.Karplus, ed. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 250 186. Berkeley, CA: The International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics.

Bell, A.W., K.Pratt, and D.Purdy 1986 Teaching by Conflict Discussion—A Comparative Experiment. Shell Centre for Mathematical Education, University of Nottingham, England.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Bell, A.W., and D.Purdy 1985 Diagnostic Teaching—Some Problems of Directionality. Shell Centre for Mathematical Education, University of Nottingham, England.

Bennett, K.P., and M.D.LeCompte 1990 The Way Schools Work: A Sociological Analysis of Education. New York: Longman.

Bereiter, C., and M.Scardamalia 1989 Intentional learning as a goal of instruction. Pp. 361–392 in Knowing, Learning, and Instruction: Essays in Honor of Robert Glaser, L.B.Resnick, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Black, P., and William, D. 1998 Assessment and classroom learning. In Assessment and Education. Special issue of Assessment in Education: Principles, policy and practice 5(1):7– 75. Carfax Pub. Co.

Bransford, J.D., with Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1998 Designing environments to reveal, support, and expand our children’s potentials. Pp. 313–350 in Perspectives on Fundamental Processes in Intellectual Functioning (Vol. 1), S.A.Soraci and W.McIlvane, eds. Greenwich, CT: Ablex.

2000 Adventures in anchored instruction: Lessons from beyond the ivory tower. In Advances in Instructional Psychology (Vol. 5), R.Glaser, ed. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bray, M.H. 1998 Leading in Learning: An Analysis of Teachers’ Interactions with Their Colleagues as They Implement a Constructivist Approach to Learning. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Vanderbilt University, Peabody College, Nashville, TN.

Brown, A.L., and J.C.Campione 1994 Guided discovery in a community of learners. Pp. 229–270 in Classroom Lessons: Integrating Cognitive Theory and Classroom Practice, K.McGilly, ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

1996 Psychological theory and the design of innovative learning environments: On procedures, principles, and systems. Pp. 289–325 in Innovations in Learning: New Environments for Education, L.Schauble and R.Glaser, eds. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bruer, J.T. 1993 Schools for Thought. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Bruner, J. 1981 The organization of action and the nature of adult-infant transaction: Festschrift for J.R.Nuttin. Pp. 1–13 in Cognition in Human Motivation and Learning, D.d’Ydewalle and W.Lens, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Callahan, R.E. 1962 Education and the Cult of Efficiency. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Case R., and J.Moss 1996 Developing Children’s Rational Number Sense: An Approach Based on Cognitive Development Theory. Paper presented at the annual conference on the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Orlando, Florida.

Cobb, P., E.Yackel, and T.Wood 1992 A constructivist alternative to the representational view of mind in mathematics education. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 19:99– 114.

Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1997 The Jasper Project: Lessons in Curriculum, Instruction, Assessment, and Professional Development. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Collins, A., J.Hawkins, and S.M.Carver 1991 A cognitive apprenticeship for disadvantaged students. Pp. 216–243 in Teaching Advanced Skills to At-Risk Students, B.Means, C.Chelemer, and M.S.Knapp, eds. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Covey, S.R. 1990 Principle-Centered Leadership. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Crago, M.B. 1988 Cultural Context in the Communicative Interaction of Young Inuit Children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. McGill University.

Dewey, J. 1916 Democracy and Education. New York: Macmillan.

Deyhle, D., and F.Margonis 1995 Navajo mothers and daughters. Schools, jobs, and the family. Anthropology and Education Quarterly 26:135–167.

Dorr, A. 1982 Television and the socialization of the minority child. In Television and the Socialization of the Minority Child, G.L.Berry and C.Mitchell-Kernan, eds. New York: Academic Press.

Duckworth, E. 1987 “The Having of Wonderful Ideas” and Other Essays on Teaching and Learn-# ing. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University.


Festinger, L. 1957 A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Fuchs, L.S., D.Fuchs, and C.L.Hamlett 1992 Computer applications to facilitate curriculum-based measurement. Teaching Exceptional Children 24(4):58–60.


Greenfield, P.M. 1984 Mind and Media: The Effects of Television, Video, Games, and Computers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Greeno, J. 1991 Number sense as situated knowing in a conceptual domain. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 22(3):170–218.

Griffin, P., and M.Cole 1984 Current activity for the future: The zo-ped. Pp. 45–64 in Children’s Learning in the “Zone of Proximal Development,” B.Roscoff and J.Wertsch, eds. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Hardiman, P., R.Dufresne, and J.P.Mestre 1989 The relation between problem categorization and problem solving among experts and novices. Memory & Cognition 17(5):627–638.

Hasselbring, T.S., L.Goin, and J.D.Bransford 1987 Effective mathematics instruction: Developing automaticity. Teaching Exceptional Children 19(3):30–33.

Hatano, G., and K.Inagaki 1996 Cultural Contexts of Schooling Revisited: A Review of the Learning Gap from a Cultural Psychology Perspective. Paper presented at the conference on Global Prospects for Education: Development, Culture and Schooling. University of Michigan.

Heath, S.B. 1983 Ways with Words: Language, Life, and Work in Communities and Classrooms. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Holt, J. 1964 How Children Fail New York: Dell.


Johnson, D.W., and R.Johnson 1975 Learning Together and Alone: Cooperation, Competition, and Individualization. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.


Kliebard, H.M. 1975 Metaphorical roots of curriculum design. In Curriculum Theorizing: The Reconceptualists, W.Pinar, ed. Berkeley: McCutchan.


LaBerge, D., and S.J.Samuels 1974 Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology 6:293–323.

Ladson-Billings, G. 1995 Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal 32:465–491.

Lee, C.D. 1991 Big picture talkers/words walking without masters: The instructional implications of ethnic voices for an expanded literacy. Journal of Negro Education 60:291–304.

1992 Literacy, cultural diversity, and instruction. Education and Urban Society 24:279–291.

Lehrer, R., and D.Chazan 1998 Designing learning environments for developing understanding of geometry and space. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Lehrer, R., and L.Schauble 1996a Developing Model-Based Reasoning in Mathematics and Science. Paper prepared for the Workshop on the Science of Learning, National Research Council, Washington, DC.

1996b Building Bridges Between Mathematics and Science: Progress Report to James S.McDonnell Foundation. Meeting of Cognitive Studies for Educational Practice Program Investigators, November, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Lehrer, R., and L.Shumow 1997 Aligning the construction zones of parents and teachers for mathematics reform. Cognition and Instruction 15:41–83.

Lemke, J. 1990 Talking Science: Language, Learning and Values. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Leonard, W.J., R.J.Dufresne, and J.P.Mestre 1996 Using qualitative problem-solving strategies to highlight the role of conceptual knowledge in solving problems. American Journal of Physics 64:1495–1503.

Linn, M.C. 1992 The computer as learning partner: Can computer tools teach science? In This Year in School Science, 1991. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science.

1994 Teaching for Understanding in Science. Paper presented at the National Science Foundation Conference on Research Using a Cognitive Science Perspective to Facilitate School-Based Innovation in Teaching Science and Mathematics. May 5–8, Sugarloaf Conference Center, Chestnut Hill, PA.

MacCorquodale, P. 1988 Mexican American women and mathematics: Participation, aspirations, and achievement. Pp. 137–160 in Linguistic and Cultural Influences on Learning Mathematics, R.R.Cocking and J.P.Mestre, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

McLaughlin, M.W. 1990 The Rand change agent study revisited: Macro perspectives and micro realities. Educational Researcher 19(9):11–16.

Moll, L.C. 1986a Creating Strategic Learning Environments for Students: A Community-Based Approach. Paper presented at the S.I.G. Language Development Invited Symposium Literacy and Schooling, Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.

1986b Writing as a communication: Creating strategic learning environments for students. Theory into Practice 25:102–108.

Moll, L.C., ed. 1990 Vygotsky and Education. New York: Cambridge University Press. National Center for Research in Mathematical Sciences Education and Freudenthal Institute, eds.

1997 Mathematics in Context: A Connected Curriculum for Grades 5–8. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica Educational Corporation.


National Council of Teachers of Mathematics 1989 Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

National Research Council 1990 Reshaping School Mathematics. Mathematical Sciences Education Board. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Available: http://www.nap.edu.

1996 National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press: Available: http://www.nap.edu.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Newcomb, A.F., and W.E.Collins 1979 Children’s comprehension of family role portrayals in televised dramas: Effect of socio-economic status, ethnicity, and age. Developmental Psychology 15:417–423.

O’Brien, C.L. 1981 The Big Blue Marble story. Television and Children 4/5:18–22.


Palinscar, A.S., and A.L.Brown 1984 Reciprocal teaching of comprehension monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction 1:117–175.

Peterson, P., S.J.McCarthey, and R.F.Elmore 1995 Learning from school restructuring. American Educational Research Journal 33(1):119–154.

Piaget, J. 1973 The Child and Reality: Problems of Genetic Psychology. New York: Grossman.

Porter, A.C., M.W.Kirst, E.J.Osthoff, J.S.Smithson, and S.A.Schneider 1993 Reform Up Close: A Classroom Analysis. Draft final report to the National Science Foundation on Grant No. SPA-8953446 to the Consortium for Policy Research in Education. Wisconsin Center for Education Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Prawat, R.S., J.Remillard, R.T.Putnam, and R.M.Heaton 1992 Teaching mathematics for understanding: Case study of four fifth-grade teachers. Elementary School Journal 93:145–152.


Redish, E.F. 1996 Discipline-Specific Science Education and Educational Research: The Case of Physics. Paper prepared for the Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning for the Sciences of Science Learning: An Interdisciplinary Discussion.

Resnick, D.P., and L.B.Resnick 1977 The nature of literacy: An historical exploration. Harvard Educational Review 47:370–385.

Resnick, L.B. 1987 Education and Learning to Think. Committee on Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Available: http://www.nap.edu.

Rogoff, B., J.Mistry, A.Goncu, and C.Mosier 1993 Guided Participation in Cultural Activity by Toddlers and Caregivers. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 58(7), serial no. 236.

Romberg, T.A. 1983 A common curriculum for mathematics. Pp. 121–159 in Individual Differences and the Common Curriculum: Eighty-second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. G.D.Fenstermacher and J.I.Goodlad, eds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Schauble, L.R.Glaser, R.Duschl, S.Schulze, and J.John 1995 Students’ understanding of the objectives and procedures of experimentation in the science classroom. The Journal of the Learning Sciences 4(2):131– 166.

Scheffler, I. 1975 Basic mathematical skills: Some philosophical and practical remarks. In National Institute of Education Conference on Basic Mathematical Skills and Learning, Vol. 1. Euclid, OH: National Institute of Education.

Schmidt, W.H., C.C.McKnight, and S.Raizen 1997 A Splintered Vision: An Investigation of U.S. Science and Mathematics Education. U.S. National Research Center for the Third International Mathematics and Science Study. Dordrecht/Boston/London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Available: gopher://gopher.wkap.nl.70/00gopher_root1%3A%5Bbook.soci.f500%5Df5101601.txt.

Schneuwly, B. 1994 Tools to master writing: Historical glimpses. Pp. 137–147 in Literacy and Other Forms of Mediated Action, Vol. 2: Explorations in Socio-Cultural Studies, J.V.Wertsch and J.D.Ramirez, eds. Madrid: Fundación Infancia y Aprendizaje.

Schoenfeld, A.H. 1983 Problem solving in the mathematics curriculum: A report, recommendation, and an annotated bibliography. Mathematical Association of American Notes, No. 1.

1985 Mathematical Problem Solving. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

1988 When good teaching leads to bad results: The disasters of well taught mathematics classes. Educational Psychologist 23(2):145–166.

1991 On mathematics as sense-making: An informal attack on the unfortunate divorce of formal and informal mathematics. Pp. 311–343 in Informal Reasoning and Education, J.F.Voss, D.N.Perkins, and J.W.Segal, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Schofield, J.W., D.Evans-Rhodes, and B.R.Huber 1990 Artificial intelligence in the classroom: The impact of a computer-based tutor on teachers and students. Social Science Computer Review 8(1)24–41 (Special issue on Computing: Social and Policy Issues).

Schwab, J. 1978 Education and the structure of the disciplines. In Science, Curriculum, and Liberal Education: Selected Essays of Joseph J.Schwab, I.Westbury and N.Wilkof, eds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Simon, H.A. 1969 The Sciences of the Artificial. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

1996 Observations on The Sciences of Science Learning. Paper prepared for the Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning for the Sciences of Science Learning: An Interdisciplinary Discussion.

Slavin, R. 1987 Grouping for instruction in the elementary school: Equity and effectiveness. Equity and Excellence 23:31–36.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Suina, J.H., and L.B.Smolkin 1994 From natal culture to school culture to dominant society culture: Supporting transitions for Pueblo Indian students. Pp. 115–130 in Cross-Cultural Roots of Minority Child Development, P.M.Greenfield and R.R.Cocking, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Talbert, J.E., and M.W.McLaughlin 1993 Understanding teaching in context. Pp. 167–206 in Teaching for Understanding: Challenges for Policy and Practice, D.K.Cohen, M.W.McLaughlin, and J.E.Talbert, eds. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.


Vye, N.J., S.R.Goldman, J.F.Voss, C.Hmelo, S.Williams, and Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1998a Complex mathematical problem solving by individuals and dyads. Cognition and Instruction 15(4).

Vye, N.J., D.L.Schwartz, J.D.Bransford, B.J.Barron, L.Zech, and Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1998b SMART environments that support monitoring, reflection, and revision. In Metacognition in Educational Theory and Practice, D.Hacker, J.Dunlosky, and A.Graesser, eds. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.


Warren, B., and A.Rosebery 1996 This question is just too, too easy: Perspectives from the classroom on accountability in science. Pp. 97–125 in the Contributions of Instructional Innovation to Understanding Learning, L.Schauble and R.Glaser, eds. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Webb, N., and T.Romberg 1992 Implications of the NCTM Standards for mathematics assessment. In Mathematics Assessment and Evaluation, T.Romberg, ed. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Wertsch, J.V 1991 Voices of the Mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wineburg, S.S. 1996 The psychology of learning and teaching history. Pp. 423–437 in Handbook of Research in Educational Psychology, D.C.Berliner and R.C.Calfee, eds. NY: Macmillan.

Wiske, M.S. 1997 Teaching for Understanding: Linking Research with Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Wolf, D.P. 1988 Becoming literate. Academic Connections: The College Board 1(4).

Wright, J.C., and A.C.Huston 1995 Effects of Educational TV Viewing of Lower Income Preschoolers on Academic Skills, School Readiness, and School Adjustment One to Three Years Later. Report to Children’s Televsion Workshop, Center for Research on the Influence of Television on Children. University of Kansas.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

CHAPTER 7

Anderson, C.W., and E.L.Smith 1987 Teaching science. Pp. 84–111 in Educators’ Handbook: A Research Perspective, V.Richardson-Koehler, ed. White Plains, NY: Longman.


Ball, D.L. 1993 With an eye on the mathematical horizon: Dilemmas of teaching elementary school mathematics. Elementary School Journal 93:373–397.

Barth, R.S. 1991 Improving Schools from Within: Teachers, Parents, and Principals Can Make the Difference. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Brasell, H. 1987 The effect of real-time laboratory graphing on learning graphic representations of distance and velocity. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 24:385–395.

Brophy, J.E. 1990 Teaching social studies for understanding and higher-order applications. Elementary School Journal 90:351–417.

Brown, A.L., and A.S.Palinscar 1989 Guided, cooperative learning and individual knowledge acquisition. Pp. 393–451 in Knowing, Learning, and Instruction: Essays in Honor of Robert Glaser, L.Resnick, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Brown, C.A. 1985 A Study of the Socialization to Teaching of a Beginning Secondary Mathematics Teacher. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Georgia.

Brown, D. 1992 Using examples to remediate misconceptions in physics: Factors influencing conceptual change. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 29:17–34.

Brown, D., and J.Clement 1989 Overcoming misconceptions via analogical reasoning: Factors influencing understanding in a teaching experiment. Instructional Science 18:237–261.


Carpenter, T., and E.Fennema 1992 Cognitively guided instruction: Building on the knowledge of students and teachers. Pp. 457–470 in International Journal of Educational Research. Special issue: The Case of Mathematics in the United States, W.Secada, ed.

Carpenter, T., E.Fennema, and M.Franke 1996 Cognitively guided instruction: A knowledge base for reform in primary mathematics instruction. Elementary School Journal 97(1):3–20.

Chi, M.T.H., P.J.Feltovich, and R.Glaser 1981 Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices. Cognitive Science 5:121–152.

Clement, J. 1989 Learning via model construction and criticism. Pp. 341–381 in Handbook of Creativity: Assessment, Theory, and Research, G.Glover, R.Ronning and C.Reynolds, eds. New York: Plenum.

1993 Using bridging analogies and anchoring intuitions to deal with students’ preconceptions in physics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 30(10):1241–1257.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

diSessa, A. 1988 Knowledge in pieces. Pp. 49–70 in Constructivism in the Computer Age, G. Forman and P.Pufall, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

1993 Toward an epistemology of physics. Cognition and Instruction 10(2):105– 125 .

Dufresne, R.J., W.J.Gerace, P.Hardiman, and J.P.Mestre 1992 Constraining novices to perform expertlike problem analyses: Effects of schema acquisition. The Journal of Learning Sciences 2(3):307–331.

Dufresne, R.J., W.J.Gerace, W.J.Leonard, J.P.Mestre, and L.Wenk 1996 Classtalk: A classroom communication system for active learning. Journal of Computing in Higher Education 7:3–47.


Eylon, B.S., and F.Reif 1984 Effects of knowledge organization on task performance. Cognition and Instruction 1:5–44.


Fennema, E., T.Carpenter, M.Franke, L.Levi, V.Jacobs, and S.Empson 1996 A longitudinal study of learning to use children’s thinking in mathematics instruction. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 27(4):403–434.


Gamoran, M. 1994 Content knowledge and teaching innovation curricula. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, Louisiana.

Grossman, P.L., S.M.Wilson, and L.S.Shulman 1989 Teachers of substance: Subject matter for teaching. Pp. 23–36 in Knowledge Base for the Beginning Teacher, M.C.Reynolds, ed. New York: Pergamon Press.


Heller, J.I., and F.Reif 1984 Prescribing effective human problem solving processes: Problem description in physics. Cognition and Instruction 1:177–216.

Hestenes, D. 1992 Modeling games in the Newtonian world. American Journal of Physics 60:440–454.

Hiebert, J., T.Carpenter, E.Fennema, K.Fuson, H.Murray, A.Oliver, P.Human, and D.Wearne 1997 Designing Classrooms for Learning Mathematics with Understanding. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books.


Inagaki, K., and G.Hatano 1987 Young children’s spontaneous personification as analogy. Child Development 58:1013–1020.


Lampert, M. 1986 Knowing, doing, and teaching multiplication. Cognition and Instruction 3:305–342.

Lehrer, R., and T.Romberg 1996a Exploring children’s data modeling. Cognition and Instruction 14:69–108.

1996b Springboards to geometry. Pp. 53–61 in Perspectives on the Teaching of Geometry for the 21st Century, G.Mammana and V.Villani, eds. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Lehrer, R., and L.Schauble 1996a. Building Bridges Between Mathematics and Science. Progress report to James S.McDonnell Foundation. Meeting of Cognitive Studies for Educational Practice Program Investigators. November. Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN.

1996b Developing Model-Based Reasoning in Mathematics and Science. Paper presented at the Workshop on the Science of Learning, September, National Research Council, Washington, DC.

Leinhardt, G., and J.G.Greeno 1991 The cognitive skill of teaching. Pp. 233–268 in Teaching Knowledge and Intelligent Tutoring, Peter Goodyear, ed. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

1994 History: A time to be mindful. Pp. 209–225 in Teaching and Learning in History, G.Leinhardt, I.L.Beck, and C.Stainton, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Leonard, W.J., R.J.Dufresne, and J.P.Mestre 1996 Using qualitative problem-solving strategies to highlight the role of conceptual knowledge in solving problems. American Journal of Physics 64:1495–1503.

McDonald, J.P., and P.Naso 1986 Teacher as Learner: The Impact of Technology. Educational Technology Center, Graduate School of Education, Harvard University.

Medawar, P. 1982 Pluto’s Republic. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Mestre, J.P. 1994 Cognitive aspects of learning and teaching science. Pp. 3–1–3–53 in Teacher Enhancement for Elementary and Secondary Science and Mathematics: Status, Issues, and Problems, S.J.Fitzsimmons and L.C.Kerpelman, eds. NSF 94–80. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation.

Mestre, J.P., W.J.Gerace, R.J.Dufresne, and W.J.Leonard 1997 Promoting active learning in large classes using a classroom communication system. Pp. 1019–1036 in The Changing Role of Physics Departments in Modern Universities: Proceedings of the International Conference on Undergraduate Physics Education. Woodbury, NY: American Institute of Physics.

Minstrell, J. 1982 Explaining the “at rest” condition of an object. The Physics Teacher 20:10.

1989 Teaching science for understanding. Pp. 129–149 in Toward the Thinking Curriculum: Current Cognitive Research , L.B.Resnick and L.E.Klopfer, eds. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

1992 Facets of students’ knowledge and relevant instruciton. Pp. 110–128 in Proceedings of the International Workshop on Research in Physics Education: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Studies, R.Duit, F.Goldberg, and H. Niedderer, eds. Kiel, Germany: Institüt für die Pädagogik der Naturwissenshaften.


National Council of Teachers of Mathematics 1989 Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council on Teachers of Mathematics.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Ravitch, D.R., and C.E.Finn 1987 What Do Our 17-Year-Olds Know? A Report on the First National Assessment in History and Literature. New York: Harper and Row.

Resnick, L.B., V.L.Bill, S.B.Lesgold, and M.N.Leer 1991 Thinking in arithmetic class. Pp. 27–53 in Teaching Advanced Skills to At-Risk Students, B.Means, C.Chelemer, and M.S.Knapp, eds. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Rosebery, A.S., B.Warren, and F.R.Conant 1992 Appropriating scientific discourse: Findings from language minority classrooms. The Journal of the Learning Sciences 2(1):61–94.


Schauble, L., R.Glaser, R.Duschl, S.Schulze, and J.John 1995 Students’ understanding of the objectives and procedures of experimentation in the science classroom. The Journal of the Learning Sciences 4(2):131– 166.

Secules, T., C.D.Cottom, M.H.Bray, L.D.Miller, and the Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1997 Schools for thought: Creating learning communities. Educational Leadership 54(6):56–60.

Shulman, L. 1986 Paradigms and research programs in the study of teaching: A contemporary perspective. In Handbook of Research in Teaching, 3rd ed., M.C. Witrock, ed. New York: Macmillan.

1987 Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review 57:1–22.

1996 Teacher Development: Roles of Domain Expertise and Pedagogical Knowledge. Paper prepared for the Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning for The Sciences of Science Learning: An Interdisciplinary Discussion.

Sokoloff, D.R., and R.K.Thornton 1997 Using interactive lecture demonstrations to create an active learning environment. The Physics Teacher 35(6)(September):340–347.

Stein, M.K., J.A.Baxter, and G.Leinhardt 1990 Subject matter knowledge and elementary instruction: A case from functions and graphing. American Educational Research Journal 27(4):639– 663.


Talbert, J.E., and M.W.McLaughlin 1993 Understanding teaching in context. Pp. 167–206 in Teaching for Understanding: Challenges for Policy and Practice, D.K.Cohen, M.W.McLaughlin, and J.E.Talbert, eds. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Thompson, A.G. 1992 Teachers’ beliefs and conceptions: A synthesis of the research. Pp. 127– 146 in Handbook of Research in Mathematics Teaching and Learning, D.A. Grouws, ed. New York: Macmillan.

Thornton, R.K., and D.R.Sokoloff 1998 Assessing student learning of Newton’s laws: The force and motion conceptual evaluation and the evaluation of active learning laboratory and lecture curricula. American Journal of Physics 64:338–352.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Vygotsky, L.S. 1978 Mind in Society: The Development of the Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA: The Harvard University Press.


Wenk, L., R.Dufresne, W.Gerace, W.Leonard, and J.Mestre 1997 Technology-assisted active learning in large lectures. Pp. 431–452 in Student-Active Science: Models of Innovation in College Science Teaching, C. D’Avanzo and A.McNichols, eds. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders College Publishing.

Wilson, M. 1990a Investigation of structured problem solving items. Pp. 137–203 in Assessing Higher Order Thinking in Mathematics, G.Kulm, ed. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science.

1990b Measuring a van Hiele geometry sequence: A reanalysis. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 21:230–237.

Wilson, S.M., and S.S.Wineburg 1993 Wrinkles in time and place: Using performance assessments to understand the knowledge of history teachers. American Educational Research Journal 30(4)(Winter):729–769.

Wineburg, S.S. 1991 Historical problem solving: A study of the cognitive processes used in evaluating documentary and pictorial evidence. Journal of Educational Psychology 83(1):73–87.

Wineburg, S.S, and S.M.Wilson 1988 Peering at history through different lenses: The role of disciplinary perspectives in teaching history. Teachers College Record 89(4):525–539.

1991 Subject matter knowledge in the teaching of history. Pp. 303–345 in Advances in Research on Teaching, J.E.Brophy, ed. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

CHAPTER 8

Ball, D., and S.Rundquist 1993 Collaboration as a context for joining teacher learning with learning about teaching. Pp. 13–42 in Teaching for Understanding: Challenges for Policy and Practice, D.K.Cohen, M.W.McLaughlin, and J.E.Talbert, eds. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Baratta-Lorton, M. 1976 Math Their Way. Boston: Addison-Wesley.

Barone, T., D.Berliner, J.Blanchard, U.Casanova, and T.McGowan 1996 A future for teacher education: Developing a strong sense of professionalism. Pp. 1108–1149 in Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (2nd ed.), J.Silula, ed. New York: Macmillan.

Barrows, H.S. 1985 How to Design a Problem-Based Curriculum for the Preclinical Years. New York: Springer.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Bay Area Writing Project 1979 Bay Area Writing Project/California Writing Project/National Writing Project: An Overview. Unpublished paper, ED184123. University of California, Berkeley.

Bunday, M., and J.Kelly 1996 National board certification and the teaching profession’s commitment to quality assurance. Phi Delta Kappan 78(3):215–219.

Carini, P. 1979 The Art of Seeing and the Visibility of the Person. Unpublished paper, North Dakota Study Group on Evaluation, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND.

Carpenter, T., and E.Fennema 1992 Cognitively guided instruction: Building on the knowledge of students and teachers. Pp. 457–470 in International Journal of Educational Research, (Special issue: The Case of Mathematics in the United States, W Secada, ed.)

Carpenter, T., E.Fennema, and M.Franke 1996 Cognitively guided instruction: A knowledge base for reform in primary mathematics instruction. Elementary School Journal 97(1):3–20.

Carpenter, T.P., E.Fennema, P.L.Peterson, C.P.Chiang, and M.Loef 1989 Using knowledge of children’s mathematics thinking in classroom teaching: An experimental study. American Educational Research Journal 26:499–532.

Case, R. 1996 Introduction: Reconceptualizing the nature of children’s conceptual structures and their development in middle childhood. Pp. 1–26 in The role of central conceptual structures in the development of children’s thought. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, serial no. 246. 61 (nos. 1–2).

Cochran-Smith, M., and S.Lytle 1993 Inside/Outside: Teacher Research and Knowledge. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University.

Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1997 The Jasper Project: Lessons in Curriculum, Instruction, Assessment, and Professional Development. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Cohen, D.K. 1990 A revolution in one classroom: The case of Mrs. Oublier. Educational Evolution and Policy Analysis 12:330–338.

Cole, B. 1996 Characterizing On-line Communication: A First Step. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, April 8–12, New York, NY.


Darling-Hammond, L. 1997 School reform at the crossroads: Confronting the central issues of teaching. Educational Policy 11(2):151–166.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Dewey, J. 1963 Experience and Education. New York: Collier.

Elmore, R., and G.Sykes 1992 Curriculum policy. Pp. 185–215 in Handbook of Research on Curriculum, P.W.Jackson, ed. New York: Macmillan.


Feiman-Nemser, S., and M.Parker 1993 Mentoring in context: A comparison of two US programs for beginning teachers. International Journal of Educational Research 19(8):699–718.

Feldman, A. 1993 Teachers Learning from Teachers: Knowledge and Understanding in Collaborative Action Research. Unpublished dissertation. Stanford University.

1994 Erzberger’s dilemma: Validity in action research and science teachers’ need to know. Science Education 78(1):83–101.

1996 Enhancing the practice of physics teachers: Mechanisms for the generation and sharing of knowledge and understanding in collaborative action research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 33(5):513–540.

Feldman, A., and J.Atkin 1995 Embedding action research in professional practice. In Educational Action Research: Becoming Practically Critical, S.Noffke and R.Stevenson, eds. New York: Teachers College Press.

Feldman, A., and A.Kropf 1997 The Evaluation of Minds-On Physics: An Integrated Curriculum for Developing Concept-Based Problem Solving in Physics. Unpublished paper. Physics Education Research Group, Amherst, MA.

Fredericksen, J., and B.White 1994 Mental models and understanding: A problem for science education. In New Directions in Educational Technology, E.Scanlon and T.O’Shea, eds. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Freedman, S.W., ed. 1985a The role of Response in the Acquisition of Written Language. Final Report. Graduate School of Education, University of California, Berkeley.

1985b The Acquisition of Written Language: Response and Revision. Harwood, NJ: Ablex.


Goodlad, J. 1990 Teachers for Our Nation’s Schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Greeno, J.G., A.M.Collins, and L.B.Resnick 1996 Cognition and learning. Pp. 15–46 in Handbook of Educational Psychology, D.C.Berliner and R.C.Calfee, eds. NY: Macmillan.


Heaton, R.M. 1992 Who is minding the mathematics content? A case study of a fifth-grade teacher. Elementary School Journal 93:151–192.

Hollingsworth, S. 1994 Teacher Research and Urban Literacy: Lessons and Conversations in a Feminist Key. New York: Teachers College Press.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Hollins, E. 1995 Research, Culture, Teacher Knowledge and Development. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, April, San Francisco.

Holmes Group 1986 Tomorrow’s Teachers: A Report of the Holmes Group. Unpublished paper, Holmes Group, East Lansing, Michigan.

Kearns, D.T. 1988 An education recovery plan for America. Phi Delta Kappan 69(8):565–570.

Knapp, N.F., and P.L.Peterson 1995 Meanings and practices: Teachers’ interpretation of “CGI” after four years. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 26(1):40–65.

Koppich, J.E., and M.S.Knapp 1998 Federal Research Investment and the Improvement of Teaching: 1980–1997. Seattle, WA: Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy.


Lampert, M. 1998 Studying teaching as a thinking practice. Pp. 53–78 in Thinking Practices, J.Greene and S.G.Goldman, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Lave, J., and E.Wenger 1991 Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Leonard, W.J., R.J Dufresne, W.J.Gerace, and J.P Mestre 1999a Minds on Physics: Motion Activities and Reader. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/ Hunt Publishing.

1999b Minds on Physics: Motion-Teacher’s Guide. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.

1999c Minds on Physics: Interactions-Activities and Reader. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.

1999d Minds on Physics: Interactions-Teacher’s Guide. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/ Hunt Publishing.

1999e Minds on Physics: Conservation Laws and Concept-Based Problem Solving-Activities and Reader. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.

1999f Minds on Physics: Conservation Laws and Concept-Based Problem Solving-Teacher’s Guide. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.

Little, J.W. 1990 The mentor phenomenon and the social organization of teaching. Review of Research in Education, 16:297–351.

Lucido, H. 1988 Coaching physics. Physics Teacher 26(6):333–340.


Marsh, D., and J.Sevilla 1991 An Analysis of the Implementation of Project SEED: An Interim Report. Technical report. University of Southern California.

Minstrell, J.A. 1989 Teaching science for understanding. In Toward the Thinking Curriculum: Current Cognitive Research, L.B.Resnick and L.E.Klopfer, eds. Alexandria, VA: ASCD Books.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future 1996 What Matters Most: Teaching for America’s Future. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.

Natriello, G., C.J.Riehl, and A.M.Pallas 1994 Between the Rock of Standards and the Hard Place of Accommodation: Evaluation Practices of Teachers in High Schools Serving Disadvantaged Students . Center for Research on Effective Schooling for Disadvantaged Students, Johns Hopkins University.

Noffke, S. 1997 Professional, personal, and political dimensions of action research. Review of Research in Education 22:305–343.


Perkins, D. 1992 Smart Schools: From Training Memories to Educating Minds. New York: Free Press.

Peterson, P.L., and C.Barnes 1996 Learning together: Challenges of mathematics, equity, and leadership. Phi Delta Kappan 77(7):485–491.

Peterson, P., T.Carpenter, and E.Fennema 1989 Teachers’ knowledge of students’ knowledge in mathematics problem solving: Correlational and case analyses. Journal of Educational Psychology 81:558–569.


Renyi, J. 1996 Teachers Take Charge of Their Learning: Transforming Professional Development for Student Success. Unpublished paper. National Foundation for the Improvement of Education, Washington, DC.

Ruopp, R. 1993 LabNet: Toward a Community of Practice. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.


Schifter, D., and C.T.Fosnot 1993 Reconstructing Mathematics Education: Stories of Teachers Meeting the Challenge of Reform. New York: Teachers College Press.

Schön, D. 1983 The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. New York: Basic Books.

Shulman, L. 1986 Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher 15(2):4–14.

Stake, R., and C.Migotsky 1995 Evaluation Study of the Chicago Teachers Academy: Methods and Findings of the CIRCE Internal Evaluation Study. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, April 18– 22, San Francisco, California.


U.S. Department of Education 1994 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 1994 Long-Term Assessment. Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, Washington, DC.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Van Hise, Y. 1986 Physics teaching resource agent institute reports of regional convocations. AAPT Announcer 16(2):103–110.


Wilson, S., L.Shulman, and A.Richert 1987 ‘150 different ways’ of knowing: Representations of knowledge in teaching. Pp. 104–124 in Exploring Teachers’ Thinking, J.Calderhead, ed. London: Cassell.

Wiske, M.S. 1998 Teaching for Understanding: Linking Research with Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.


Yerushalmy, M., D.Chazan, and M.Gordon 1990 Guided inquiry and technology: A yearlong study of children and teachers using the Geometry Supposer. Newton, MA: Education Development Center, Center for Learning Technology.


Zeichner, K. 1981- Reflective teaching and field-based experience in teacher education. Interchange 12:1–22.

Zeichner, K., and Listen, D. 1990 Reflective teaching: An Introduction. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

CHAPTER 9

Anderson, J.R., C.F.Boyle, A.Corbett, and M.W.Lewis 1990 Cognitive modeling and intelligent tutoring. Artificial Intelligence 42:7–49.

Anderson, J.R., A.T.Corbett, K.Koedinger, and R.Pelletier 1995 Cognitive tutors: Lessons learned. The Journal of Learning Sciences 4:167– 207.

Atkinson, R. 1968 Computerized instruction and the learning process. American Psychologist 23:225–239.


Bachelard, G. 1984 The New Scientific Spirit. Boston: Beacon Press.

Barron, B., N.Vye, L.Zech, D.Schwartz, J.Bransford, S.Goldman, J.Pellegrino, J. Morris, S.Garrison, and R.Kantor 1995 Creating contexts for community based problem solving: The Jasper Challenge Series. Pp. 47–71 in Thinking and Literacy: The Mind at Work, C. Hedley, P.Antonacci, and M.Rabinowitz, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Barron, B.J., D.L.Schwartz, NJ. Vye, A.Moore, A.Petrosino, L.Zech., J.D.Bransford, and Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1998 Doing with understanding: Lessons from research on problem and project-based learning. Journal of Learning Sciences 7(3 and 4):271–312.

Barron, L.C., and E.S.Goldman 1994 Integrating technology with teacher preparation. Pp. 81–110 in Technology and Education Reform, B.Means, ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Bauch, J.P., ed. 1997 The Bridge Project: Connecting Parents and Schools Through Voice Messaging. Report on the Pilot Projects. Vanderbilt University and Work/ Family Directions, Inc., Nashville, TN.

Bereiter, C., and M.Scardamalia 1993 Surpassing Ourselves: An Inquiry into the Nature and Implications of Expertise. Chicago and La Salle, IL: Open Court Publishing.

Bonney, R., and A.A.Dhondt 1997 Feeder Watch: An example of a student-scientist partnership. In Internet Links for Science Education: Student-Scientist Partnerships, K.C.Cohen, ed. New York: Plenum.

Brodie, K.W., L.A.Carpenter, R.A.Earnshaw, J.R.Gallop, R.J.Hubbold, A.M.Mumford, C.D.Osland, and P.Quarendon 1992 Scientific Visualization. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Brown, A.L., and J.C.Campione 1987 On the importance of knowing what you are doing: Metacognition and mathematics. In Teaching and Evaluating Mathematical Problem Solving, R.Charles and E.Silver, eds. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Bryson, M., and M.Scardamalia 1991 Teaching writing to students at risk for academic failure. Pp. 141–167 in Teaching Advanced Skills to At-Risk Students: Views from Research and Practice, B.Means, C.Chelemer, and M.S.Knapp, eds. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Char, C., and J.Hawkins 1987 Charting the course: Involving teachers in the formative research and design of the Voyage of the Mimi. Pp. 211–222 in Mirrors of Minds: Patterns of Experience in Educational Computing, R.D.Pea and K.Sheingold, eds. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Classroom, Inc. 1996 Learning for Life Newsletter (Sept. 24):1–10, B.Lewis, ed. NY: Classroom, Inc.

Clauset, K., C.Rawley, and G.Bodeker 1987 STELLA: Softward for structural thinking. Collegiate Microcomputer 5(4):311–319.

Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1992 The Jasper series as an example of anchored instruction: Theory, program description, and assessment data. Educational Psychologist 27:291–315.

1993 The Jasper series: Theoretical foundations and data on problem solving and transfer. Pp. 113–152 in The Challenge in Mathematics and Science Education: Psychology’s Response, L.A.Penner, G.M.Batsche, H.M.Knoff, and D.L.Nelson, eds. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

1994 From visual word problems to learning communities: Changing conceptions of cognitive research. Pp. 157–200 in Classroom Lessons: Integrating Cognitive Theory and Classroom Practice, K.McGilly, ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

1996 Looking at technology in context: A framework for understanding technology and education research. Pp. 807–840 in The Handbook of Educational Psychology, D.C.Berliner and R.C.Calfee, eds. New York: Macmillan.

1997 The Jasper Project: Lessons in Curriculum, Instruction, Assessment, and Professional Development. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

1998a Adventures in anchored instruction: Lessons from beyond the ivory tower. Burgess 1996 study in Advances in Instructional Psychology, Vol. 5, R. Glaser, ed. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

1998b Designing environments to reveal, support, and expand our children’s po-tentials. Pp. 313–350 in Perspectives on Fundamental Processes in Intellec-tual Functioning (Vol. 1), S.A.Soraci and W.McIlvane, eds. Greenwich, CT: Ablex.

Cohen, K.C., ed. 1997 Internet Links for Science Education: Student-Scientist Partnerships. New York: Plenum.

Collins, A. 1990 Cognitive apprenticeship and instructional technology. Pp. 121–138 in Dimensions of Thinking and Cognitive Instruction, B.F.Jones and L.Idol, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Collins, A., and J.S.Brown 1988 The computer as a tool for learning through reflection. Pp. 1–18 in Learning Issues for Intelligent Tutoring Systems, H.Mandl and A.Lesgold, eds. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Collins, A., J.S.Brown, and S.E.Newman 1989 Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing, and mathematics. Pp. 453–494 in Knowing, Learning, and Instruction: Essays in Honor of Robert Glaser, L.B.Resnick, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Coon, T. 1988 Using STELLA simulation software in life science education. Computers in Life Science Education 5(9):57–71.

Crews, T.R., G.Biswas, S.R.Goldman, and J.D.Bransford 1997 Anchored interactive learning environments. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education 8:142–178.

Dede, C., ed. 1998 Introduction. Pp. v-x in Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) Yearbook: Learning with Technology. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Deny, S.P., and A.M.Lesgold 1996 Toward a situated social practice model for instructional design. Pp. 787– 806 in Handbook of Educational Psychology, R.C.Calfee and D.C.Berliner, eds. New York: Macmillan.

Duffy, T.M. 1997 Strategic teaching framework: An instructional model for learning complex interactive skills. Pp. 571–592 in Instructional Development State of the Art: Vol. 3, Paradigms and Educational Technology, C.Dills and A. Romiszowski, eds. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Edelson, D.C., R.D.Pea, and L.Gomez 1995 Constructivism in the collaboratory. Pp. 151–164 in Constructivist Learning Environments: Case Studies in Instructional Design, B.G.Wilson, ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Education Policy Network 1997 The Daily Report Card. December 5. Available: http://www.negp.gov.


Finholt, T., and L.S.Sproull 1990 Electronic groups at work. Organizational Science 1:41–64.

Fishman, B., and L.D’Amico 1994 Which way will the wind blow? Network computer tool for studying the weather. Pp. 209–216 in Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 1994: Proceedings of the Ed-Media ‘94, T.Ottman and I.Tomek, eds. Charlottesville, VA: AACE.

Forrester, J. 1991 Systems dynamics: Adding structure and relevance to pre-college education. In Shaping the Future, K.R.Manning, ed. Boston, MA: MIT Press.

Friedler, Y., R.Nachmias, and M.C.Linn 1990 Learning scientific reasoning skills in microcomputer-based laboratories. Journal of Research on Science Teaching 27:173–191.


Gabrys, C., A.Weiner, and A.Lesgold 1993 Learning by problem solving in a coached apprenticeship system. Pp. 119–147 in Cognitive Science Foundations of Instruction, M.Rabinowitz, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Galegher, J., R.E.Kraut, and C.Egido, eds. 1990 Intellectual Teamwork: The Social and Technological Foundations of Co-operative Work. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Glass, L., and M.Mackey 1988 From Clocks to Chaos. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Goldman, S., and J.N.Moschkovich 1995 Environments for collaborating mathematically. Pp. 143–146 in Proceedings of the First International Conference on Computer Support for Collaborative Learning. October. Bloomington, Indiana.

Gordin, D., D.Edelson, and R.D.Pea 1996 The Greenhouse effect visualizer: A tool for the science classroom. Proceedings of the Fourth American Meteorological Society Education Symposium.

Gordin, D.N., D.C.Edelson, L.M.Gomez, E.M.Lento, and R.D.Pea 1996 Student conference on global warming: A collaborative network-supported ecologically hierarchic geosciences curriculum. Proceedings of the Fifth American Meteorological Society Education Symposium.

Gordin, D.N., and R.D.Pea 1995 Prospects for scientific visualization as an educational technology. The Journal of the Learning Sciences 4:249–279.

Gordin, D., J.Polman, and R.D.Pea 1994 The Climate Visualizer: Sense-making through scientific visualization. Journal of Science Education and Technology 3:203–226.

Greenfield, P.M., and R.R.Cocking, eds. 1996 Interacting with Video. Greenwich, CT: Ablex.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Haken, H. 1981 Chaos and Order in Nature. Proceeding of the International Symposium on Synergetics. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Hestenes, D. 1992 Modeling games in the Newtonian world. American Journal of Physics 60:440–454.

Hmelo, C., and S.M.Williams, eds. 1998 Special issue: Learning through problem solving. The Journal of the Learning Sciences 7(3 and 4).

Hoadley, C.M., and P.Bell 1996 Web for your head: The design of digital resources to enhance lifelong learning. D-Lib Magazine. September. Available: http://www.dlib.org/dlib/september96/kie/09hoadley.html

Holland, J.H. 1995 Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds Complexity. New York: Addison-Wesley.

Hunt, E., and Minstrell, J. 1994 A cognitive approach to the teaching of physics. Pp. 51–74 in Classroom Lessons: Integrating Cognitive Theory and Classroom Practice, K.McGilly, ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.


Jackson, S., S.Stratford, J.Krajcik, and E.Soloway 1996 Making system dynamics modeling accessible to pre-college science students. Interactive Learning Environments 4:233–257.


Kafai, Y.B. 1995 Minds in Play: Computer Game Design as a Context for Children’s Learning. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Kaput, J.J. 1987 Representation systems and mathematics. In Problems of Representation in the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics, C.Jonvier, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Kaufmann II, W.J., and L.L.Smarr 1993 Supercomputing and Transformation of Science. New York: Scientific American Library.

Keating, T. 1997 Electronic Community: The Role of an Electronic Network in the Development of a Community of Teachers Engaged in Curriculum Development and Implementation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University.

Keating, T., and A.Rosenquist 1998 The Role of an Electronic Network in the Development of a Community of Teachers Implementing a Human Biology Curriculum. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Teaching, San Diego, CA.

Kinzer, C.K., V.Risko, J.Carson, L.Meltzer, and F.Bigenho 1992 Students’ Perceptions of Instruction and Instructional Needs: First Steps Toward Implementing Case-based Instruction. Paper presented at the 42nd annual meeting of the National Reading Conference, San Antonio, Texas. December.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Koedinger, K.R., J.R.Anderson, W.H.Hadley, and M.A.Mark 1997 Intelligent tutoring goes to school in the big city. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education 8:30–43.

Lampert, M., and D.L.Ball 1998 Teaching, Multimedia, and Mathematics: Investigations of Real Practice. New York: Teachers College Press.

Lawless, J.G., and R.Coppola 1966 GLOBE: Earth as our backyard. Geotimes 41(9):28–30.

Lederberg, J., and K.Uncapher, eds. 1989 Towards a National Collaboratory: Report of an Invitational Workshop at the Rockefeller University, March 17–18. National Science Foundation Directorate for Computer and Information Science, Washington, DC.

Lesgold, A., S.Chipman, J.S.Brown, and E.Soloway 1990 Prospects for information science and technology focused on intelligent training systems concerns. Pp. 383–394 in Annual Review of Computer Science. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Review Press.

Levin, J., M.Waugh, D.Brown, and R.Clift 1994 Teaching teleapprenticeships: A new organizational framework for improving teacher education using electronic networks. Journal of Machine-Mediated Learning 4(2 and 3):149–161.

Linn, M.C. 1991 The computer as lab partner: Can computer tools teach science? In This Year in School Science 1991, L.Roberts, K.Sheingold, and S.Malcolm, eds. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Linn, M.C., N.B.Songer, and B.S.Eylon 1996 Shifts and convergences in science learning and instruction. Pp. 438–490 in Handbook of Educational Psychology, R.C.Calfee and D.C.Berliner, eds. Riverside, NJ: Macmillan.


Mandinach, E. 1989 Model-building and the use of computer simulation of dynamic systems. Journal of Educational Computing Research 5(2):221–243.

Mandinach, E., M.Thorpe, and C.Lahart 1988 The Impact of the Systems Thinking Approach on Teaching and Learning Activities. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

McDonald, J.P., and P.Naso 1986 Teacher as Learner: The Impact of Technology. Unpublished paper, Educational Technology Center, Harvard Graduate School of Education. May.

Means, B., E.Coleman, A.Klewis, E.Quellamlz, C.Marder, and K.Valdes. 1997 GLOBE Year 2 Evaluation. Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.

Means, B., T.Middleton, A.Lewis, E.Quellmaiz, and K.Valdes 1996 GLOBE Year 1 Evaluation. Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.

Means, B., and K.Olson 1995a Technology’s role in student-centered classrooms. In New Directions for Research on Teaching, H.Walberg and H.Waxman, eds. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

1995b Technology’s Role in Education Reform: Findings from a National Study of Innovating Schools. Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.

Means, B., K.Olson, and R.Singh 1995 Beyond the classroom: Restructuring schools with technology. Phi Delta Kappan (September):69–72.

Merrill, D.C., B.J.Reiser, M.Ranney, and J.G.Trafton 1992 Effective tutoring techniques: A comparison of human tutors and intelligent tutoring systems. Journal of the Learning Sciences 2(3):277–305.

Mestre, J.P., W.J.Gerace, R.J.Dufresne, and W.J.Leonard 1997 Promoting active learning in large classes using a classroom communication system. Pp. 1019–1036 in The Changing Role of Physics Departments in Modern Universities: Proceedings of the International Conference on Undergraduate Physics Education. Woodbury, NY: American Institute of Physics.

Miller, A.I. 1986 Imagery in Scientific Thought. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Mintz, R. 1993 Computerized simulation as an inquiry tool. School Science and Mathematics 93(2):76–80.

Nemirovsky, R., C.Tierney, and T.Wright 1995 Body Motion and Graphing. Paper presented at the 1995 Annual Conference of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, California. April.

Neumann, E.K., and P.Horwitz 1997 Linking Models to Data: Hypermodels for Science Education. Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. Available: http://copernicus.bbn.com/genscope/neumann/link_paper/link.html


O’Neill, D.K., R.Wagner, and L.M.Gomez 1996 Online Mentors: Experiments in Science Class. Educational Leadership 54(3):39–42.

O’Neill, K. 1996 Telementoring: One researcher’s perspective. The newsletter of the BBN National School Network Project, #12. Electronic document. April.


Paolucci, M., D.Suthers, and A.Weiner 1996 Automated advice-giving strategies for scientific inquiry. In Intelligent Tutoring Systems: Lecture Notes in Computer Science #1086:372–381, C. Frasson, G.Gauthier, and A.Lesgold, eds. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Pea, R.D. 1985 Beyond amplification: Using computers to reorganize human mental functioning. Educational Psychologist 20:167–182.

1993a Distributed multimedia learning environments: The Collaborative Visualization Project. Communications of the ACM 36(5):60–63.

1993b Learning scientific concepts through material and social activities: Conversational analysis meets conceptual change. Educational Psychologist 28(3):265–277.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Pea, R.D., L.M.Gomez, D.C.Edelson, B.J.Fishman, D.N.Gordin, and D.K.O’Neill 1997 Science education as a driver of cyberspace technology development. Pp. 189–220 in Internet Links for Science Education: Student-Scientist Partnerships, K.C.Cohen, ed. New York: Plenum.

Pea, R.D., and D.M.Kurland 1987 Cognitive technologies for writing development. Pp. 71–120 in Review of Research in Education, Vol. 14. Washington, DC: AERA Press.

Pellegrino, J.W., D.Hickey, A.Heath, K.Rewey, N.J.Vye, and the Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1991 Assessing the Outcome of an Innovative Instructional Program: The 1990– 91 Implementation of the “Adventures of Jasper Woodbury.” Technology Report No. 91–1. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt Learning Technology Center.

Pollak, H. 1986 The School Mathematics Curriculum: Raising National Expectations: Summary of a Conference. November 7–8, 1986. Paper presented at the conference on the School Mathematics Curriculum, University of California, Los Angeles.

President’s Committee on Advisors on Science and Technology 1997 Report to the President on the use of technology to strengthen K–12 education in the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Resnick, L.B. 1987 Education and Learning to Think. Committee on Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Available: http://www.nap.edu.

Riel, M. 1992 A functional analysis of educational telecomputing: A case study of Learning Circles. Interactive Learning Environments 2(1):15–29.

Riel, M.M., and J.A.Levin 1990 Building global communities: Success and failture in computer networking. Instructional Science 19:145–169.

Risko, V.J., and C.K.Kinzer 1998 Multimedia cases in reading education. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

Roberts, N., and T.Barclay 1988 Teaching model building to high school students: Theory and reality. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching (Fall) 13–24.

Roschelle, J., and J.Kaput 1996 Educational software architecture and systemic impact: The promise of component software. Journal of Educational Computing Research 14(3):217–228.

Rubin, A. 1992 The Alaska QUILL Network: Fostering a Teacher Community Through Telecommunication. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Ruopp, R., S.Gal, B.Drayton, and M.Pfister 1993 LabNet: Toward a Community of Practice. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Scardamalia, M., and C.Bereiter 1991 Higher levels of agency for children in knowledge-building: A challenge for the design of new knowledge media. Journal of the Learning Sciences 1:37–68.

1993 Technologies for knowledge-building discourse. Communications of the ACM 36(5):37–41.

Scardamalia, M., C.Bereiter, and M.Lamon 1994 The SCILE Project: Trying to bring the classroom into World 3. Pp. 201– 228 in Classroom Lessons: Integrating Cognitive Theory and Classroom Practice, K.McGilly, ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Scardamalia, M., C.Bereiter, R.S.McLean, J.Swallow, and E.Woodruff 1989 Computer-supported intentional learning environments. Journal of Educational Computing Research 5(1):51–68.

Schlager, M.S., and P.K.Schank 1997 TAPPED IN: A new on-line teacher community concept for the next generation of Internet technology. Proceedings of CSCL ’97, The Second International Conference on Computer Support for Collaborative Learning, Toronto, Canada.

Schofield, J. 1995 Computers and Classroom Culture. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Schwartz, D.L., X.Lin, S.Brophy, and J.D.Bransford 1999 Toward the development of flexibly adaptive instructional designs. Pp. 183–213 in Instructional Design Theories and Models: Volume II, C.M. Reigelut, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Schwartz, J.L. 1994 The role of research in reforming mathematics education: A different approach. In Mathematical Thinking and Problem Solving, A.H.Schoenfeld, ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Skovsmose, O. 1985 Mathematical education versus critical education. Educational Studies in Mathematics 16:337–354.

Songer, N.B. 1993 Learning science with a child-focused resource: A case study of kids as global scientists. Pp. 935–940 in Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Steed, M. 1992 STELLA, a simulation construction kit: Cognitive process and educational implications. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching 11:39–52.

Suppes, P., and M.Morningstar 1968 Computer-assisted instruction. Science 166:343–350.

Suthers, D., A.Weiner, J.Connelly, and M.Paolucci 1995 Belvedere: Engaging students in critical discussion of science and public policy issues. II-Ed 95, the 7th World Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education, Washington, DC, August 16–19.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Thornton, R.K., and D.R.Sokoloff 1998 Assessing student learning of Newton’s laws: The force and motion conceptual evaluation and the evaluation of active learning laboratory and lecture curricula. American Journal of Physics 64:338–352.

Tinker, B., and B.Berenfeld 1993 A Global Lab Story: A Moment of Glory in San Antonio. Hands On! 16(3)(Fall).

1994 Patterns of US Global Lab Adaptations. Hands On! Available: http://hou.lbl.gov


University of California Regents 1997 Hands-On Universe. Available: http://hou.lbl.gov/

University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) 1997 University of Illinois WW2010: The WeatherWorld 2010 Project. Available: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment 1995 Teachers and Technology: Making the Connection. OTA-EHR-6i16. April. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Available: ftp://gandalf.isu.edu/pub/ota/teachers.tech/

U.S. Department of Education 1994 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 1994 Long-Term Assessment. Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, Washington, D.C.


Vosniadou, N.J., E.DeCorte, R.Glaser, and H.Mandl, eds. 1996 International Perspectives on the Design of Technology-supported Learning Environments. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Vye, N.J., D.L.Schwartz, J.D.Bransford, B.J.Barron, L.Zech, and Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1998 SMART environments that support monitoring, reflection, and revision. In Metacognition in Educational Theory and Practice, D.Hacker, J.Dunlosky, and A.Graesser, eds. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.


Wagner, R. 1996 Expeditions to Mount Everest. In Tales from the Electronic Frontier: First-Hand Experiences of Teachers and Students Using the Internet in K–12Math and Science, R.W.M.Shinohara and A.Sussman, eds. San Francisco: WestEd.

Watts, E. 1985 How Teachers Learn: Teachers’ Views on Professional Development. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago. April.

Wertheimer, R. 1990 The geometry proof tutor: An “intelligent” computer-based tutor in the classroom. Mathematics Teacher 83:308–317.

White, B.Y. 1993 ThinkerTools: Causal models, conceptual change, and science education. Cognition and Instruction 10(1):1–100.

White, B.Y., and J.R.Fredericksen 1994 Using assessment to foster a classroom research community. Educator Fall:19–24.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

1998 Inquiry, modeling, and metacognition: Making science accessible to all students. Cognition and Instruction 16(1):3–118.

CHAPTER 11

Elmore, R.F. 1995 Getting to Scale with Successful Education Practices: Four Principles and Some Recommended Actions. Paper commissioned by the Office of Reform Assistance and Dissemination, U.S. Department of Education.

Elmore, R.F., Consortium for Policy Research in Education, and D.Burney 1996 Staff Development and Instructional Improvement Community District 2, New York City. Paper prepared for the National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future.

Evans, J.St.B.T. 1989 Bias in Human Reasoning. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.


Goldman, A.I. 1994 Argument and social epistemology. Journal of Philosophy 91:27–49.


Habermas, J. 1990 Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Hendrickson, G., and W.H.Schroeder 1941 Transfer of training in learning to hit a submerged target. Journal of Education Psychology 32:205–213.


Judd, C.H. 1908 The relation of special training to general intelligence. Education Review 36:28–42.


Kobayashi, Y. 1994 Conceptual acquisition and change through social interaction. Human Development 37:233–241.

Kuhn, D. 1991 The Skills of Argument. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.


Lin, X.D., and J.Lehman 1999 Supporting learning of variable control in a computer-based biology environment: Effects of prompting college students to reflect on their own thinking. Journal of Research in Science Teaching.


Moshman, D. 1995a Reasoning as self-constrained thinking. Human Development 38:53–64.

1995b The construction of moral rationality. Human Development 38:265–281.


National Research Council 1999 Improving Student Learning: A Strategic Plan for Education Research and Its Utilization. Committee on Feasibility Study for a Strategic Education Research Program. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Newstead, S.E., and J.St.B.T.Evans, eds. 1995 Perspectives on Thinking and Reasoning: Essays in Honour of Peter Wason. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×

Pea, R.D. 1999 New media communication forums for improving education research and practice. In Issues in Education Research: Problems and Possibilities, E.G. Lagemann and L.S.Shulman, eds. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.


Salmon, M.H., and C.M.Zeitz 1995 Analyzing conversational reasoning. Informal Logic 17:1–23.

Stokes, D.E. 1997 Pasteur’s Quadrant: Basic Science and Technological Innovation. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.


Vye, N.J.., S.R.Goldman, C.Hmelo, J.F.Voss, S.Williams, and Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1998 Complex mathematical problem solving by individuals and dyads. Cognition and Instruction 15(4).


Youniss, J., and W.Damon. 1992 Social construction in Piaget’s theory. Pp. 267–286 in Piaget’s Theory: Prospects and Possibilities, H.Berlin and P.B.Pufal, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 285
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 286
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 287
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 288
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 289
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 290
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 291
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 292
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 293
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 294
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 295
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 296
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 297
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 298
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 299
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 300
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 301
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 302
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 303
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 304
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 305
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 306
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 307
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 308
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 309
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 310
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 311
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 312
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 313
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 314
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 315
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 316
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 317
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 318
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 319
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 320
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 321
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 322
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 323
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 324
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 325
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 326
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 327
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 328
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 329
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 330
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 331
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 332
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 333
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 334
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 335
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 336
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 337
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 338
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 339
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 340
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 341
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 342
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 343
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 344
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 345
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 346
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 347
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9853.
×
Page 348
Next: Biographical Sketches of Committees' Members and Staff »
How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition Get This Book
×
Buy Paperback | $49.95 Buy Ebook | $39.99
MyNAP members save 10% online.
Login or Register to save!
Download Free PDF

First released in the Spring of 1999, How People Learn has been expanded to show how the theories and insights from the original book can translate into actions and practice, now making a real connection between classroom activities and learning behavior. This edition includes far-reaching suggestions for research that could increase the impact that classroom teaching has on actual learning.

Like the original edition, this book offers exciting new research about the mind and the brain that provides answers to a number of compelling questions. When do infants begin to learn? How do experts learn and how is this different from non-experts? What can teachers and schools do-with curricula, classroom settings, and teaching methods—to help children learn most effectively? New evidence from many branches of science has significantly added to our understanding of what it means to know, from the neural processes that occur during learning to the influence of culture on what people see and absorb.

How People Learn examines these findings and their implications for what we teach, how we teach it, and how we assess what our children learn. The book uses exemplary teaching to illustrate how approaches based on what we now know result in in-depth learning. This new knowledge calls into question concepts and practices firmly entrenched in our current education system.

Topics include:

  • How learning actually changes the physical structure of the brain.
  • How existing knowledge affects what people notice and how they learn.
  • What the thought processes of experts tell us about how to teach.
  • The amazing learning potential of infants.
  • The relationship of classroom learning and everyday settings of community and workplace.
  • Learning needs and opportunities for teachers.
  • A realistic look at the role of technology in education.
  1. ×

    Welcome to OpenBook!

    You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website.

    Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features?

    No Thanks Take a Tour »
  2. ×

    Show this book's table of contents, where you can jump to any chapter by name.

    « Back Next »
  3. ×

    ...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one.

    « Back Next »
  4. ×

    Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book.

    « Back Next »
  5. ×

    Switch between the Original Pages, where you can read the report as it appeared in print, and Text Pages for the web version, where you can highlight and search the text.

    « Back Next »
  6. ×

    To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter.

    « Back Next »
  7. ×

    Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email.

    « Back Next »
  8. ×

    View our suggested citation for this chapter.

    « Back Next »
  9. ×

    Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available.

    « Back Next »
Stay Connected!