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Chapter 1
OVERVIEW: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In the 1990s ~ dream of two centuries will perhaps be realized:
It may become possible to move electrons from a precisely defined
surface of an electrical conductor to precisely defined reaction centers
in molecules anchored to that surface. The implications of attaining
this seemingly simple goal are very broad. Indeed, by achieving this
goal, electrochemistry may well come to serve centrally in a broad
advance of science and technology. This report seeks to document such
opportunities and routes for their realization.
Electrochemical processes based on just such events today provide
humanity both with materials essential to civilization (many of which
cannot be created by any other economical method) and with major
technologies that contribute significantly to the national well-being
and security. Pacemaker batteries that last a lifetime are available;
communication systems and portable electronic devices have been powered
by batteries from their beginnings. Indeed, electrochemical batteries
are truly unique in their ability to store chemical energy and to
convert it instantaneously and efficiently into mobile electrical
power. Electrochemical methods for surface treatment play an essential
role in making microelectronic devices, in reducing corrosion, and in
conserving critical materials. Many plastics and textiles are made with
chemicals produced by electrolysis. Aluminum for buildings and aircraft
and titanium for supersonic aircraft and tanks are made exclusively by
processes that depend on electrochemical reactions. Also, electro-
chemical reactions are at the root of corrosion processes.
In the future, it may become possible to produce organized networks
of molecules resembling, in their controlled structure, biological
systems, yet having properties different from those of any material
known today. New types of computers based on electrochemical elements
may then be invented, as may implanted microsensors reporting on subtle
changes in the biochemistry of the human body. With better electro-
chemical knowledge it may also become feasible to accelerate the healing
of tissue and to simulate the action of nerves that have been damaged.
Coatings for cars that would not change in appearance after years of
service might be discovered, along with propulsion systems for electric
vehicles and methods to remove toxic materials selectively from streams
of water.
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Although these potential applications may sound like dreams, the
scientific basis for them has already been demonstrated by experiments
during the 1980s.
This report illuminates opportunities for new technological applica-
tions founded on electrochemical phenomena. It addresses issues
essential to the modernization and enhancement of competitiveness of the
existing American electrochemical process industry. It identifies
scientific and applied problems that currently limit progress and makes
recommendations that respond to these issues. Specific documentation is
provided on socioeconomic benefits (Chapter 3), current federal support
(Chapter 4), high-priority opportunities in technologies (Chapter 5) and
in research (Chapter 6), and needs in education (Chapter 7~.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The committee reached six conclusions and formulated eight
recommendations for action. These are given below. The remainder of
the report provides the background information on which these
perspectives are based.
1. Opportunities for New Industries
Conclusion. Major opportunities for new products and processes
basest on electrochemistry exist outside of conventional electro-
chemical industries.
Products and processes based on electrochemical phenomena at
present contribute nearly $30 billion per year to the gross national
product of the United States. New additional markets having annual
sales on the order of $20 billion are projected for electrochemical
products and processes within the next decade. These markets include
microelectronics, sensors, surface processing, membrane separations,
advanced batteries and fuel cells, and corrosion control, among others.
At present, however, there are no major federal programs focused on the
broad range of electrochemical phenomena that underpin these areas, with
the exception of batteries and fuel cells. (For the latter two areas,
research recommendations are summarized in earlier reports- NMAB-390,
Assessment of Research bleeds for Advanced Battery Systems, and
NMAB-411, Fuel Cell Materials Technology in Vehicular PropuIsion.)
The United States has a research capability in electrochemistry that
could become the basis for major technological developments and for
competitive industries if adequately sustained. However, many
electrochemical technologies are based on complex coupled phenomena that
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are not well understood. For this reason development efforts can be
slow and inefficient. The long lead time and high investment risk
associated with new "breakthrough" processes and devices require federal
support for research and early stages of exploratory development. Such
support would contribute to national defense as well as a strong
domestic competitive position relative to foreign manufacturers, whose
endeavors are often effectively advanced by massive government-sponsored
research and development programs.
Accordingly, we recommend that multidisciplinary research be
pursued vigorously in key high-technology electrochemical areas that
have readily apparent commercial potential. Technological
opportunities where success is deemed likely in the near term (less than
10 years) are identified in Chapter 5. Highest priority is placed on
Advanced energy conversion devices, including batteries and fuel
cells and photoelectrochemical devices
.
processing
Microelectronics, including plasma and electrochemical surface
· High-performance coatings and materials
· Biomedical devices, including membranes and sensors
2. Opportunities in Basic Science
Conclusion: Rapid evolution is about to occur in several critical
areas of basic electrochemical science, and this will underpin
significant new technological developments.
Improved quantitative understanding of electrochemical systems is
essential. Although substantial progress has been made in the develop-
ment of models and theories for electrochemical systems, these are
oversimplified and in many instances not quantitative. The rapidly
evolving in situ instrumental techniques are providing a wholly new
level of quantitative experimental information concerning electro-
chemical systems and will provide a strong base on which to build
quantitatively reliable models. Chapter 6 summarizes opportunities for
cross-cutting research that hold great promise for advancement of
fundamental knowledge. These will ultimately lead to new products and
processes in the far term (more than 10 years).
Accordingly, we recommends that a commitment be rotate to accelerate
progress in selected areas that now limit development of a quantitative
understanding of electrochemical systems, from a macroscopic level down
to the molecular scale. Of highest priority is the need for improved
models and both quantitative theoretical and experimental approaches for
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· The extended structure of interracial regions (solid-solid,
solid-liquid, liquid- gas, liquid- liquid)
.
· Charge transfer and adsorption phenomena at electrified
Interfaces, including plasma-solid systems
· Transport through surface films and coatings, including membranes,
ionic and electronic conducting polymers, fast ionic conducting solids,
and passive corrosion films
· Dimensional and morphological stability during operation of porous
electrode structures and during deposition and etching processes
· Advanced electrochemical engineering methods for the design of
high-performance processes and devices
In additions we recommend that a separate assessment be made of
scientific and technological opportunities in the area of electro-
chemical surface processing. A detailed assessment of these
opportunities is given in Chapter 5. Industries based on these
phenomena represent one of the largest electrochemical technologies on
the basis of value added (exceeding $10 billion per year in the United
States). In response to needs and new-found capabilities, the field is
currently expanding rapidly in the discovery of new materials, novel
coatings, and thin films. Improved fundamental understanding of
solid-liquid interface structure, the role of additives, surface shape
evolution, and simulation of transport and reaction during high-rate
processing is needed.
3. Advances in Instrumentation
Conclusion: Advancements in instrumental techniques make possible
major gains in the understanding of the structural and dynamic
properties of electrochemical systems and set the stage for the next
generation of applications.
The understanding of electrochemical systems thus far has been
based principally on the use of measurements that do not directly yield
information at the molecular level. Until very recently, scientists
have not had access to information about chemical species at electro-
chemical interfaces of the type that has played, for example, such an
important role in understanding the chemistry of molecules in the bulk
phases. Recent advances in instrumental techniques, however, promise
access to molecular-level information about electrochemical systems that
heretofore has been unavailable. This exciting development opens up
important new opportunities in fundamental and applied science.
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Accordingly, we recommend that advanced methods for characterizing
interfacial structure and dynamics be cleveloped vigorously. A panel
was established by the committee to study and make recommendations on
experimental methods. Its findings have been issued separately
(NMAB 438-3, In Situ Characterization of Electrc.crcemi~al Processes),
and its conclusions and recommendations are summarized in Chapter 6.
Twelve specific recommendations are set forth for special emphasis in
the near term. They call, in general, for new methods that (a) can
characterize interracial structure with greater chemical detail and with
spatial resolution approaching the atomic scale and (b) can characterize
dynamics in ways that will provide views of faster reactions. It is
particularly important to establish new methods for in situ
characterization-that is, direct observation in the electrochemical
environment of interest.
4. Multidisciplinary Approach for Complex Problem Areas
Conclusion: A multidisciplinary approach will be essential to
solving many outstanding problems in electrochemical technologies.
Societal needs and market forces for specific devices and
processes are often deeply segmented from each other and are thus unable
to work together to create a cohesive multidisciplinary research base.
Although fundamental understanding of electrochemical phenomena has
advanced substantially in the past decade within separate traditional
disciplines, application of this knowledge to complex systems remains
haphazard. The federal government has recognized the importance of
multidisciplinary research and development in a variety of areas.
Electrochemical science and engineering should have a similar support
structure.
Accordingly, we recommend that focused federal action support a
broader, multidisciplinary research and technology base for electro-
cher'~ical science and engineering. Among those applications addressed
in Chapter 5 where focused multidisciplinary research would exert a
highly visible impact are corrosion, microelectronic devices, advanced
materials processing, and health care. Improved institutional and
collaborative arrangements are needed to facilitate a multidisciplinary
approach and to transfer scientific knowledge into practice.
Educational needs are addressed in Chapter 7.
This recommendation is especially warranted and timely for
electrochemical corrosion, most of which cannot be avoided with present
technology and which costs the nation an estimated $120 billion
annually. A panel was established by the committee to study and make
recommendations in this field. Its findings have been issued separately
(NMAB 438-2, A Plan for Advancing Electrochemical Corrosion Science arid
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Technology), and its conclusions and recommendations are listed in
Chapter 5.
5. Effective Science and Technology Transfer
Conclusion: The United States must be much more effective in
transforming electrochemical research results into new and improved
products.
In the international competition in rapidly evolving technologies,
a valuable asset of the United States is its historically strong
research position, a strength that must be protected and enhanced.
Foreign countries have aggressively used the results of U.S. research to
develop new products that are subsequently sold in the United States.
Examples include advanced batteries, sensors, and microelectronic
devices. If new markets are to be captured by the United States, more
applied research and exploratory development are essential to improve
the efficiency of transition from research discovery to early stages of
technology evaluation. In the electrochemical field, the transfer of
scientific results into technology is carried out ineffectively in the
United States.
Accordingly, we recommend that federal support be increased
substantially in applied research and exploratory development of
targeted areas that have significant economic leverage, with the
increase being on tile order of $60 million per year. Background
documentation for this recommendation is given in Chapter 4. The goal
of this recommendation is to strengthen U.S. capability to benefit
economically from its strong basic research program on electrochemical
phenomena. Even with the increase recommended, the level of federal
support of the electrochemical field (relative to its economic impact)
will be well below the average for all federal R&D support. Four areas
for introducing new U.S. technology in the marketplace were identified
earlier under Conclusion 1. The committee notes that in one area-
advanced energy conversion devices federal funding underpinning
commercial development of advanced batteries and fuel cells has been
substantially reduced; the planning level for fiscal year 1987 is about
half the 1984 level.
Furthermore, we recommend that a more effective process for
science and technology transfer be established for utilization of
electrochemical research. Three issues need to be addressed. First,
institutional barriers, both university and federal, should be reduced
to encourage individual researchers and inventors to initiate
technological ventures. Second, joint efforts among industry,
government, and universities should be developed with the goal of
bringing into close proximity trained personnel from these communities.
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Third, effective mechanisms to accomplish these goals need to be found;
these may include sabbaticals or internships for individuals, education
programs (Chapter 7), and establishment of temporary initiatives
involving workers from government, industries, and academe to convert
research results into products (Chapter 4~. Science and technology
transfer is, in general, a continuing need, although it will be
transitory for individual tasks federal support to nurture the initial
phase of concept transfer, and industrial support for later phases of
development.
6. Perspective and Scope of Overall Federal Program
Conclusion: Electrochemical phenomena play an essential role in
the economic well-being, security, and health of the nation, and the
goal of federal support should be to foster a broad science and
technology base in this multidfisciplinary field.
The diversity and socioeconomic impact of electrochemical
phenomena on U.S. society are discussed in Chapter 3. In spite of their
importance, an overview of the federal support of this field given in
Chapter 4 shows that funding is provided largely within agency programs
whose primary focuses are other than electrochemical ones. As a result,
electrochemical aspects are viewed in too narrow a framework.
Accordingly, we recommend that a new perspective on electro-
chemical and corrosion phenomena be established in federal programs.
Increased emphasis is needed in government programs to encourage
the development of advanced ideas in electrochemical science and
engineering. This emphasis can best be achieved by funding agencies
supporting the field as a multidisciplinary thrust area.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
multidisciplinary research
