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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2000. Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9892.
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METHODS FOR DEVELOPING SPACECRAFT WATER EXPOSURE GUIDELINES

Subcommittee on Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines

Committee on Toxicology

Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology

Commission on Life Sciences

National Research Council

 

NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2000. Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9892.
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NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
2101 Constitution Ave., N.W.Washington, D.C.20418

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.

This project was supported by Grant No. NAG 9-895 between the National Academy of Sciences and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for this project.

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Copyright 2000 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2000. Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9892.
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES

National Academy of Sciences

National Academy of Engineering

Institute of Medicine

National Research Council

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.

The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.

The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2000. Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9892.
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SUBCOMMITTEE ON SPACECRAFT WATER EXPOSURE GUIDELINES

DONALD E. GARDNER (Chair), Consultant,

Raleigh, North Carolina

JOSEPH V. BRADY,

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland

GARY P. CARLSON,

Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana

ELAINE M. FAUSTMAN,

University of Washington, Seattle, Washington

CHARLES E. FEIGLEY,

University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina

MARY ESTHER GAULDEN,

University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas

WILLIAM E. HALPERIN,

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio

RALPH L. KODELL,

National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, Arkansas

ROBERT SNYDER,

Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Piscataway, New Jersey

BERNARD M. WAGNER, Consultant,

Short Hills, New Jersey

GAROLD S. YOST,

University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah

Staff

SUSAN N.J. PANG, Project Director

LEE R. PAULSON, Project Director (through 10/99)

KATE KELLY, Technical Editor

KATHRINE IVERSON, Information Specialist

LUCY V. FUSCO, Project Assistant

EMILY L. SMAIL, Project Assistant

Sponsor

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2000. Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9892.
×

COMMITTEE ON TOXICOLOGY

BAILUS WALKER, JR. (Chair),

Howard University Medical Center and American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.

MELVIN E. ANDERSEN,

Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado

GERMAINE M. BUCK,

University at Buffalo, State of New York

ROBERT E. FORSTER II,

University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

PAUL M.D. FOSTER,

Chemical Industry Institute of Toxicology, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina

WILLIAM E. HALPERIN,

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio

CHARLES H. HOBBS,

Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute and Lovelace Biomedical and Environmental Research Institute, Albuquerque, New Mexico

SAMUEL KACEW,

University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario

NANCY KERKVLIET,

Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon

FLORENCE K. KINOSHITA,

Hercules Incorporated, Wilmington, Delaware

MICHAEL J. KOSNETT,

University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, Colorado

MORTON LIPPMANN,

New York University School of Medicine, Tuxedo, New York

ERNEST E. MCCONNELL,

ToxPath, Inc., Raleigh, North Carolina

THOMAS E. MCKONE,

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and University of California, Berkeley, California

HARIHARA MEHENDALE,

University of Louisiana, Monroe, Louisiana

DAVID H. MOORE,

Battelle Memorial Institute, Bel Air, Maryland

GÜNTER OBERDÖRSTER,

University of Rochester, Rochester, New York

JOHN L. O'DONOGHUE,

Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, New York

GEORGE M. RUSCH,

AlliedSignal, Inc., Morristown, New Jersey

MARY E. VORE,

University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky

ANNETTA P. WATSON,

Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee

LAUREN ZEISE,

California Environmental Protection Agency, Oakland, California

Staff

KULBIR S. BAKSHI, Program Director

SUSAN N.J. PANG, Program Officer

ABIGAIL E. STACK, Program Officer

RUTH E. CROSSGROVE, Publications Manager

KATHRINE J. IVERSON, Manager,

Toxicology Information Center

EMILY L. SMAIL, Project Assistant

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2000. Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9892.
×

BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY

GORDON ORIANS (Chair),

University of Washington, Seattle, Washington

DONALD MATTISON (Vice Chair),

March of Dimes, White Plains, New York

DAVID ALLEN,

University of Texas, Austin, Texas

INGRID C. BURKE,

Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado

WILLIAM L. CHAMEIDES,

Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia

JOHN DOULL,

The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas

CHRISTOPHER B. FIELD,

Carnegie Institute of Washington, Stanford, California

JOHN GERHART,

University of California, Berkeley, California

J. PAUL GILMAN,

Celera Genomics, Rockville, Maryland

BRUCE D. HAMMOCK,

University of California, Davis, California

MARK HARWELL,

University of Miami, Miami, Florida

ROGENE HENDERSON,

Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, New Mexico

CAROL HENRY,

American Chemistry Council, Arlington, Virginia

BARBARA HULKA,

University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

JAMES F. KITCHELL,

University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin

DANIEL KREWSKI,

University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario

JAMES A. MACMAHON,

Utah State University, Logan, Utah

MARIO J. MOLINA,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts

CHARLES O'MELIA,

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland

WILLEM F. PASSCHIER,

Health Council of the Netherlands

KIRK SMITH,

University of California, Berkeley, California

MARGARET STRAND,

Oppenheimer Wolff Donnelly & Bayh, LLP, Washington, D.C.

TERRY F. YOSIE,

American Chemistry Council, Arlington, Virginia

Senior Staff

JAMES J. REISA, Director

DAVID J. POLICANSKY, Associate Director and Senior Program Director for Applied Ecology

CAROL A. MACZKA, Senior Program Director for Toxicology and Risk Assessment

RAYMOND A. WASSEL, Senior Program Director for Environmental Sciences and Engineering

KULBIR BAKSHI, Program Director for the Committee on Toxicology

LEE R. PAULSON, Program Director for Resource Management

ROBERTA M. WEDGE, Program Director for Risk Analysis

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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2000. Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9892.
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COMMISSION ON LIFE SCIENCES

MICHAEL T. CLEGG (Chair),

University of California, Riverside, California

PAUL BERG (Vice Chair),

Stanford University, Stanford, California

FREDERICK R. ANDERSON,

Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft, Washington, D.C.

JOANNA BURGER,

Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey

JAMES E. CLEAVER,

University of California, San Francisco, California

DAVID EISENBERG,

University of California, Los Angeles, California

JOHN EMMERSON,

Fishers, Indiana

NEAL FIRST,

University of isconsin, Madison, Wisconsin

DAVID J. GALAS,

Keck Graduate Institute of Applied Life Science, Claremont, California

DAVID V. GOEDDEL,

Tularik, Inc., South San Francisco, California

ARTURO GOMEZ-POMPA,

University of California, Riverside, California

COREY S. GOODMAN,

University of California, Berkeley, California

JON W. GORDON,

Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York

DAVID G. HOEL,

Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina

BARBARA S. HULKA,

University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

CYNTHIA KENYON,

University of California, San Francisco, California

BRUCE R. LEVIN,

Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia

DAVID LIVINGSTON,

Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts

DONALD R. MATTISON,

March of Dimes, White Plains, New York

ELLIOT M. MEYEROWITZ,

California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California

ROBERT T. PAINE,

University of Washington, Seattle, Washington

RONALD R. SEDEROFF,

North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina

ROBERT R. SOKAL,

State University of New York, Stony Brook, New York

CHARLES F. STEVENS,

The Salk Institute, La Jolla, California

SHIRLEY M. TILGHMAN,

Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey

RAYMOND L. WHITE,

University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah

Staff

WARREN R. MUIR, Executive Director

JACQUELINE K. PRINCE, Financial Officer

BARBARA B. SMITH, Administrative Associate

LAURA T. HOLLIDAY, Senior Program Assistant

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2000. Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9892.
×

OTHER REPORTS OF THE BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY

Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury (2000)

Strengthening Science at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Research-Management and Peer- Review Practices (2000)

Scientific Frontiers in Developmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment (2000)

Modeling Mobile-Source Emissions (2000)

Toxicological Risks of Selected Flame-Retardant Chemicals (2000)

Copper in Drinking Water (2000)

Ecological Indicators for the Nation (2000)

Waste Incineration and Public Health (1999)

Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment (1999)

Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter: I. Immediate Priorities and a Long-Range Research Portfolio (1998); II. Evaluating Research Progress and Updating the Portfolio (1999)

Ozone-Forming Potential of Reformulated Gasoline (1999)

Risk-Based Waste Classification in California (1999)

Arsenic in Drinking Water (1999)

Brucellosis in the Greater Yellowstone Area (1998)

The National Research Council's Committee on Toxicology: The First 50 Years (1997)

Toxicologic Assessment of the Army's Zinc Cadmium Sulfide Dispersion Tests (1997)

Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet (1996)

Upstream: Salmon and Society in the Pacific Northwest (1996)

Science and the Endangered Species Act (1995)

Wetlands: Characteristics and Boundaries (1995)

Biologic Markers (5 reports, 1989-1995)

Review of EPA's Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (3 reports, 1994-1995)

Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment (1994)

Ranking Hazardous Waste Sites for Remedial Action (1994)

Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children (1993)

Issues in Risk Assessment (1993)

Setting Priorities for Land Conservation (1993)

Protecting Visibility in National Parks and Wilderness Areas (1993)

Dolphins and the Tuna Industry (1992)

Hazardous Materials on the Public Lands (1992)

Science and the National Parks (1992)

Animals as Sentinels of Environmental Health Hazards (1991)

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2000. Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9892.
×

Assessment of the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Studies Program, Volumes I-IV (1991-1993)

Human Exposure Assessment for Airborne Pollutants (1991)

Monitoring Human Tissues for Toxic Substances (1991)

Rethinking the Ozone Problem in Urban and Regional Air Pollution (1991)

Decline of the Sea Turtles (1990)

Copies of these reports may be ordered from the National Academy Press

(800) 624-6242

(202) 334-3313

www.nap.edu

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2000. Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9892.
×

OTHER REPORTS OF THE COMMITTEE ON TOXICOLOGY

Review of the U.S. Navy's Exposure Standard for Manufactured Vitreous Fibers (2000)

Submarine Exposure Guidance Levels for Selected Hydrofluorocarbons: HFC-236fa, HFC-23, and HFC-404a (2000)

Review of the U.S. Army's Health Risk Assessments for Oral Exposure to Six Chemical-Warfare Agents (1999)

Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants, Volume 1 (1997), Volume 2 (1999), Volume 3 (1999)

Assessment of Exposure-Response Functions for Rocket-Emission Toxicants (1998)

Review of a Screening Level Risk Assessment for the Naval Air Facility at Atsugi, Japan (Letter Report) (1998)

Toxicity of Alternatives to Chlorofluorocarbons: HFC-134a and HCFC-123 (1996)

Permissible Exposure Levels for Selected Military Fuel Vapors (1996)

Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants, Volume 1 (1994), Volume 2 (1996), Volume 3 (1996), Volume 4 (2000)

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2000. Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9892.
×
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Preface

THE National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) maintains an active interest in the environmental conditions associated with living and working in spacecraft and identifying hazards that might adversely affect the health and well-being of crew members. Despite major engineering advances in controlling the spacecraft environment, some water and air contamination appears to be inevitable. Several hundred chemical species are likely to be found in the closed environment of the spacecraft, and as the frequency, complexity, and duration of human space flight increase, identifying and understanding significant health hazards will become more complicated and more critical for the success of the missions.

NASA asked the National Research Council (NRC) Committee on Toxicology to develop guidelines, similar to those developed by the NRC in 1992 for airborne substances, for examining the likelihood of adverse effects from water contaminants on the health and performance of spacecraft crews. In this report, the Subcommittee on Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines (SWEGs) examines what is known about water contaminants in spacecraft, the adequacy of current risk assessment methods, and the toxicologic issues of greatest concern. SWEGs are to be established for exposures of 1,10,100, and 1000 days. The 1-day SWEG is a concentration of a substance in water that is judged to be acceptable for the performance of specific tasks during

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2000. Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9892.
×

rare emergency conditions lasting for periods up to 24 hours. The 1-day SWEG is intended to prevent irreversible harm and degradation in crew performance. Temporary discomfort is permissible as long as there is no effect on judgment, performance, or ability to respond to an emergency. Longer-term SWEGs are intended to prevent adverse health effects (either immediate or delayed) and degradation in crew performance that could result from continuous exposure in closed spacecraft for as long as 1000 days.

This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their technical expertise and diverse perspectives, in accordance with procedures approved by the NRC Report Review Committee for reviewing NRC and Institute of Medicine reports. The purposes of that independent review were to provide candid and critical comments to assist the NRC in making the published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals, who are neither officials nor employees of the NRC, for their participation in the review of this report: Joseph Borzelleca, Virginia Commonwealth University; Dean Carter, University of Arizona; John Doull, The University of Kansas Medical Center; Rogene Henderson, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute; Robert Kavlock, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; and Robert MacPhail, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

The individuals listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions. It must be emphasized, however, that responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring subcommittee and the NRC.

Special thanks are extended to Dr. Raghupathy Ramanathan of Wyle Laboratories, who provided the critical background information in Chapter 2. Thanks are also extended to Drs. Hector Garcia, Chiu-Wing Lam (both from Wyle Laboratories), and John T. James (Johnson Space Center), who provided technical information for the report. We gratefully acknowledge the staff at the Water and Food Analysis Laboratory at NASA's Johnson Space Center for their support in providing water analysis data and help with matters concerning Mir water systems. In particular, we wish to thank Mr. Dick Sauer, Dr. John Schultz, Dr. Paul Mudgett, and Mr. John Straub.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2000. Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9892.
×

We are grateful for the assistance of the NRC staff in preparing the report. Staff members who contributed to this effort are Carol Maczka, senior program director for Toxicology and Risk Assessment; Kulbir Bakshi, program director for the Committee on Toxicology; and Kate Kelly, editor. We especially wish to recognize the contributions of project directors Lee Paulson and Susan Pang and project assistants Lucy Fusco and Emily Smail.

Finally, we would like to thank all the members of the subcommittee for their dedicated efforts throughout the development of this report.

Donald E. Gardner, Ph.D.

Chair, Subcommittee on Spacecraft

Water Exposure Guidelines

Bailus Walker Jr., Ph.D., M.P.H.

Chair, Committee on Toxicology

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2000. Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9892.
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Abbreviations

ADI

acceptable daily intake

BBDR

biologically based dose-response

BMD

benchmark dose

CFU

colony-forming unit

CHeCS

crew health-care system

CWC

contingency water container (U.S.)

ECLSS

environmental control life support system

EPA

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

EVA

extravehicular activity

HX

heat exchanger

IML

International Microgravity Laboratory

ISS

International Space Station

JSC

NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas

LMLSTP

Lunar Mars Life Support Test Project

LOAEL

lowest-observed-adverse-effect level

LSM

life support module (Russian segment of ISS)

MCL

maximum contaminant level

MCV

microbial check valve

MOA

mode of action

MSFC

Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama

NASA

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NOAEL

no-observed-adverse-effect level

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2000. Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9892.
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NRC

National Research Council

PBPK

physiologically based pharmacokinetics

PCWQM

process-control water-quality monitor

PERP

permitted exposure/rodent potency

QD

quick disconnect

SL-J

Spacelab-J

SLS-1

Spacelab Life Sciences-Mission 1

SM

service module (Russian segment of ISS)

SMAC

spacecraft maximum allowable concentration

SRV-K

Russian condensate recovery system

SRV-U

Russian urine recovery assembly

SSP

Space Station Program

STS

space transportation system (refers to shuttle mission)

SWEG

spacecraft water exposure guideline

TIC

total inorganic carbon

TIMES

thermally integrated membrane evaporation system

TOC

total organic carbon

TOCA

total organic carbon analyzer

USML

U.S. Microgravity Laboratory

VCD

vapor compression distillation

VRA

volatile removal assembly

WRS

water recovery system

WRT

Water Recovery Test

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2000. Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9892.
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Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines

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The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) maintains an active interest in the environmental conditions associated with living and working in spacecraft and identifying hazards that might adversely affect the health and well-being of crew members. Despite major engineering advances in controlling the spacecraft environment, some water and air contamination appears to be inevitable. Several hundred chemical species are likely to be found in the closed environment of the spacecraft, and as the frequency, complexity, and duration of human space flight increase, identifying and understanding significant health hazards will become more complicated and more critical for the success of the missions.

NASA asked the National Research Council (NRC) Committee on Toxicology to develop guidelines, similar to those developed by the NRC in 1992 for airborne substances, for examining the likelihood of adverse effects from water contaminants on the health and performance of spacecraft crews. In this report, the Subcommittee on Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines (SWEGs) examines what is known about water contaminants in spacecraft, the adequacy of current risk assessment methods, and the toxicologic issues of greatest concern.

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