Index
A
Accelerometers, 193
Accretionary environments, 73-74
Acid mine drainage, 18
Acoustic caliper, 210
Acoustic emission methods
doppler flowmeter, 171
fluid flow monitoring, 219
geothermal reservoir characterization, 200, 487-492
logging methods, 133, 169, 212-217, 227
televiewer image logs, 174-175, 208-211
Acoustic fluidization, 93
Adsorption, solute, 274-275
Advection in fractured rocks, 273, 282, 284, 286, 378, 384-385, 425
Aeromagnetic surveys, 490
Aitkokan, Canada, 457
Alkalinity, and groundwater age, 465-467
Alterant tomography, 192
Anisotropic systems, heterogeneous, 27
Anisotropy
aligned fractures and, 176
and detection of fractures, 172, 174
effective stress and, 410
and fluid flows, 128-129, 266-267
fracture orientation and, 133, 172
in permeability, 118, 270, 320, 410, 422
reservoir, 15
surface roughness and, 118
transmission tomography and, 192
Ankerite, 86
Anticracks, 30
Apache Leap research site, Arizona, 377-378, 458
Apertures
arithmetic average, 141
deformation, 407-413
dilatancy and, 118
distributions, 127
effective stress and, 406
epoxy castings, 108-109
local, 106, 107-108, 111, 121, 124, 128, 141, 504
mechanical, 121, 122, 123, 124, 142
and permeability, 128
tortuosity and, 145-146
Aquifers, 17, 18, 22, 27, 41, 74, 179, 253, 262, 262, 269-270, 276 , 280, 282, 300-301, 430
Aquitards, 378
Aragonite, 442
Arches National Park, Utah, 57, 67, 68
Archie's law, 139
See also Hydrofracturing
Asperities.
See also Roughness
deformation of, 112, 114, 115, 117, 124-125
and pressure solution, 126
Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, Underground Research Laboratory, 20-21, 390-392, 479-487, 517
Austin Chalk fields, Texas, 70, 71, 173
Autocorrelation function, 103
B
Baecher disk model, 337, 339, 340
Basaltic rock, 46, 61, 149-152
Bedded rocks
orientation of fractures in, 172
research recommendations, 6
salt formation, 20
volcanic tufts, 19-20
Bedding-plane surfaces, 106, 118
Borehole televiewer imaging logs, 169, 174-175, 206, 208-211, 226, 229, 230, 231, 232, 461, 476
Boreholes
acoustic measurements, 169, 199-200, 212-217
advantages of, 186
combined measurements, 508
cross-hole measurements, 149-152, 168, 188-196, 218, 219, 461, 469
cross-hole tests, 264-272, 288-291, 509
dilution test, 280-282
drainage, 448
flowmeter measurements, 217-219
heat mining through, 16
hydraulic testing in, 245-272, 288-291
imaging logs, 174-175, 206-212
oriented, 15
premeability, 263-264
radar methods, 185, 221-222, 224-225
reflection methods, 170, 196-199
rugosity, 227
single, 196, 245-264, 469, 470, 507-508
transmission tomography, 188-192, 198-199
vertical seismic profiling, 187-188
Box-counting method, 80-81
Breccia zones, 42
Brine-filled rock, 134, 175, 198
Bruggeman-Hanai-Sen equation, 139
Buckled plates, 34
Byerlee's law, 92
Byron Salvage Yard, 27
C
Calaveras fault, 77
Canadian Shield, 20, 390-392, 479
Capture zones, 18
Carbonate formations, 86
Caverns, 23
Cellular automata, 131
Chalk formations, fractured
hydrocarbon reservoirs. 86
tracer tests in, 292-293
Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories, Ontario, Canada, 290-291
Chanels, fracture, 73, 273-274, 284-285, 383, 512
Chemical processes.
See also Mineralization;
Solute transport
and clay mobilization, 439-440
dissolution and precipitation, 440-442
in fluid flow, 14, 125-126, 428-429
modeling, 382-384
research recommendations, 10, 442, 500, 520-521, 523
and stress/flow/temperature relationships, 10, 523
thermodynamic, 428-429, 440-441, 490-491
and void geometry, 439-443
Chert/shale, 86
Clay cake, experiments in, 61, 64, 70
Clays
chemical mobilization and swelling of, 125-126, 439-440
detection of fractures in, 178, 184, 198
electrical conductivity, 222
mineral alteration and infilling, 191, 226, 506
overburden, 182
Clear Lake Volcanic field, 490
Colloidal suspensions, 442-443
Columbia Resin, 40
Composite topography, 107, 108
Computer simulations
channelized transport, 275
rock heterogeneity and flow/transport, 282-283
tomographic image reconstruction, 297
Conjugate shear fractures, 34-35
Conoco Borehole Test Facility, Oklahoma, 188
Conservation of volume constraint, 124, 142
Construction, drainage methods, 448-450
Continuous-wave electromagnetic systems, 194
Contractional steps/structures, 76
Continuum simulation models. See Equivalent continuum simulation models
Cordilleran thrust belt, 88
Core analysis, 140, 144, 201-202
Crack aspect ratio, 177
Creep, 119
Cretaceous
Mesaverde group, 476
Niobrara formation, 234-235
Western Interior Seaway, 88
Critical path analysis, 147
Crystalline rocks.
See also Stripa Project;
Underground Research Laboratory
conceptual models, 519
core analysis, 201
experimental facilities, 19, 20-21, 513-514
fracture zones in, 6, 187, 479-487, 514
hydraulic tests in, 266
in situ research facilities, 510
power spectral density, 106
stress concentrators, 40
strike-slip faults in, 78
vertical seismic profiling, 187
waste repositories in, 19
CSRIO Hollow Inclusion Cell, 470
Cubic law, 120-121, 123, 124, 146-147
D
Dams, 23, 125, 222, 412, 415, 420, 421, 434, 436, 438
Data processing,
See also Computer simulation
image enhancement techniques, 210-212
inversion programs, 224-225, 272
seismic reflection information, 173
stacking, 173
type curve analysis, 261
Decollement, 73
Defense Nuclear Agency, 5
Deformation and failure of fractures
aperture size and, 24, 407-413
asperities, 112
bedding planes, 74
bulk, 411
dilatancy and, 116-118
elasticity and, 114, 119, 124, 219
electrical properties and, 142
fault interaction and, 52
faulting in porous sandstone and, 42-43
and fluid flow, 112, 142, 407-413, 419
hydraulic fracturing and, 416
narrow zones of, 43
and permeability, 9-10, 43, 503-504
at plate boundaries, 41
pore fluids and, 92
rates, 112
shear, 9-10, 116-117, 118, 420, 422, 514
single fractures, 123
stress and, 104, 111-112, 411, 419-420
temperature of the rock and, 125, 422-424
types of, 406-407
voids, 124
volumetric, 115
Density of fractures, 105-106, 132, 176-177, 334, 343, 393
Dershowitz polygonal model, 342
Detection of fractures, 418.
See also specific methods and devices
borehole methods, 186-200, 224-229
core inspection, 201-202
coupled methods, 168, 180, 186, 192, 193-194, 198-199, 412, 419, 506-507
differential methods, 168
distances and, 222
elastic methods, 168-169
electrical methods, 169, 178-180
electromagnetic methods, 169, 180-185
flowmeter case studies, 230-232
fluid-flow monitoring, 219-222, 223
fracture properties useful for, 503-505
geological observations, 170-171, 186
hydraulically conductive fractures, 205, 216, 501-510
inferences from, 223
interpretation of data, 223
inversion of data, 189, 191-192, 195-196, 198-199
limitation of methods, 501
overburden and, 180, 182, 184, 185, 186
properties of interest, 222, 503-505
radar methods, 169-170, 224-225
research recommendations, 8-9, 505-507
resolution of methods, 2, 167, 175, 180, 192, 198, 220, 222
single-hole methods, 174-175, 200-219
surface methods, 172-178
types of methods, 2, 12, 167, 168-171
water-filled, 178
well logs, conventional, 170
Diagenesis
and fracture permeability, 84-87
and sequential fracturing, 67
Difference tomography, 192, 221-222, 462-463, 469, 507
Diffraction tomography, 198-199
Digital borehold scanner, 206-207
Digital optical imaging systems, 212, 213
Dilating fractures. See Joints
Dipmeter, 211
Directional sounding, 180, 224-225
Discontinuum models. See Discrete network simulation models
Discrete fracture models, 13, 373-375, 378, 475, 515
Discrete network simulation models
applications, 346-347, 350-351, 388-389
assessment of, 347-351, 373-375
clustering of fractures, 362-363, 461
connectivity, 126-127, 349, 395
in continuum approximations, 351-358
equivalent discontinuum, 271, 319, 332, 367-370, 438
flow and transport models, 124, 366-367, 411
fractal approximation, 370-371, 373
fracture density component, 334, 343
fracture-mechanics-based, 363-366
fracture orientation component, 343-344
fracture size component, 344-345
geological issues in statistical representations, 336-337, 358-360
high-porosity matrix, 346-347
hydraulic behavior condition, 367-373
inverse methods, 373
iterated function system, 371-372, 374, 516
limitations, 389
orthogonal models and extensions, 338-339
percolation theory, 393-394
Poisson plane, 339-340, 363, 395
scale-dependent, 358-375
spatial relationships between neighboring fractures, 349, 361-367, 387
stochastic, 337-340
transmissivity of individual fractures, 345-346, 388
Dispersion in fractured rocks, 273, 324
Displacement.
See also Seismic displacement discontinuities
discontinuities, overprinted, 30
Dissolution of solids in fractures, 440-442
Dolomite, 27, 86, 226, 327-328
Drawdowns
and fracture conductivity, 409-410
and fracture permeability, 87
in pressure-sensitive formations, 411
Underground Research Laboratory experiment, 390-392
Drainage
methods in construction, 448-450
of underground structures, 24
E
Earthquakes, 415
East Bull Lake, Canada, 456
Effective medium theory, 147
Effective stress
and anisotropy, 410
defined, 111
and deformation/failure of fractures, 111, 112, 419-420
determining, 410-411
distribution, 420-422
and fluid flow, 4, 119-120, 407-410, 500, 522
fluid pressure and, 14
and permeability, 9-10, 16-17, 87, 111, 123, 128, 407-409, 414, 420 -422, 470
sensitivity tests, 416-418
Ekofisk field oil reservoir, North Sea, 86, 315, 420
Elastic properties
and deformation of fractures, 114, 119, 124
and permeability, 503-504
and seismic wave propagation, 133, 138, 172-178, 504
stiffness, 135-137, 138, 504-505
Electrical detection methods
for fluid flow, 220
imaging systems, 169, 205, 211
principles, 178-180
resistivity tomography, 169
resolution, 220
Electrical properties
borehole enlargement/alteration, 227-229
bulk, 138-140
and detection of fractures, 178-180, 191
hydraulic properties and, 140-146, 148, 220, 504
measurement, 142-143, 169, 178-180
and porosity, 138-140, 148, 220
Electromagnetic methods
costs, 181
flowmeter, 171
profiling and sounding, 169, 181
resolution, 220
Engineered structures, stress-flow coupling and, 9-10
Engineering uncertainties, 443-445
Equivalent continuum simulation models
assessment of, 331-332
continuum approximations, 310, 319-322, 351-356, 379, 380, 384, 385 , 387-388, 391-392
discrete network models in, 351-358, 367-370, 386, 412, 514
dual-porosity, 324-328, 380-381, 411, 517
fluid flow component, 322-323, 324-327, 351-356
limitations, 387
parameters, 317
percolation theory, 354-356, 395, 517
single-porosity in deterministic framework, 322-324, 386, 411, 412
solute transport component, 323-324, 327-328, 356-358, 517-518
stochastic continuum, 328-331, 386, 387-388, 412, 514
types, 321
Underground Research Laboratory Drawdown Experiment, 390-392
Excavations
and deformation of fractures, 19-20, 407
drainage, 448
underground, 24
Extensional steps/structures, 55-56, 75, 76, 77, 476
Extraction of fluids, 4, 14, 16-17, 407
F
Fanay-Augeres mine, France, 337, 352-353, 354
Faults.
See also Jointed faults;
specific faults
bedding interface, 75
at dikes, 60
dilational wave propagation, 93
domains, 77
extensional steps, 55-56
flaws and, 59
fluid flow and transport in, 73-74
formation, 42-43, 50-51, 62, 74
geometry, 48, 52, 70, 72-73, 361
in granite, 43-44, 51, 59-60, 61, 62, 63
hydraulic properties, 61-62, 72, 73
identification and measurement, 48, 195
imbricate, 73
interaction and linkage, 42, 52-56, 71-72, 74-77
listric, 70-71
in massive rocks, 61
in metamorphic rock, 59-60
nonconductive (sealing), 62, 389
paleomagnetic analysis, 71
permeability, 55-56, 62, 484-487
reverse movement, 55
rotation, 72
San Francisco Bay Area, 77, 79
in sedimentary rock, 59, 60-61
semihorizontal, 187
single small, 48
slip-direction record, 32
stress fields, 32-33, 40-41, 59
strike-slip, 41, 51, 74-77, 78
subhorizontal, 73
through going surfaces, 31-32
thrust, 72-74, 88, 483, 485-486
tunneling through, 24
vertical seismic profiling, 187
in volcanic rock, 60
zones, 24, 48, 51, 58-63, 64, 74, 93, 187
Fenton Hill, New Mexico, 456
Fickian dispersion, 273, 282, 284, 286
Field tests/methods.
See also Hydraulic tests;
Tracer tests;
specific case studies
in fault zones, 62
of hydrocarbon productive capacity, 477-478
and model parameterization, 3, 518
research recommendations, 506, 518, 521-523
tracer tests, 276-282
Filtration, for proppants and grouting, 431
Fingers/fingering, 130, 131, 132, 154, 155
Finnsjön fracture zone project, 303-304, 457
Flaws
and fault zones, 59
and fracture initiation, 35-42, 44
and tensile stresses, 42
Flocculating agents, 432-433
Flow. See Fluid flow in fractures
Flow and transport models.
See also Discrete network simulation models;
Equivalent continuum simulation models
applications, 13-14
calibrations, 318
capture zone boundaries, 18
channelization, 139, 141, 143-144, 284-285, 383-384
chemical processes, 382-384, 441-442
classification of, 316-317
complex hydrogeological systems, 375-385, 412
conservation of volume constraint, 124
coupled flow-deformation, 419
coupled heat-flow-stress, 425-426, 523-524
coupled stress-flow, 9
development process, 307-319
dispersivity of rock mass, 324, 356-358
dissolution and precipitation of solids, 441-442
double porosity, 259, 300, 309, 327-328, 384, 491-492
electric current transport, 141
field measurements and, 303-304, 308-309
flow geometry, 252-259, 383-384, 474
fractal-like concepts in, 77, 141, 256-257, 259, 317, 361
geothermal reservoirs, 492-493
in granular media, 6
grouting, 438-439
hierarchical structure of fractures in, 361, 363-364, 365-367, 389 , 516, 517
hydraulic tests in boreholes, 244, 252-261, 269-272, 290-291, 508-509
hydrogeological simulation, 307-319, 412
inferences about fractures, 311-315
laboratory, 311
multiphase, 7, 380-382, 512-513, 517
multiple boreholes, 269-272, 303-304
network, 124
parameter estimation, 13, 259-261
percolation, 111, 124, 128-131, 393-394, 517
permeability, 121, 143-144, 322, 351-354, 380-381, 512
phase structure, 128-129
regional-scale, 391-392, 464-468
research recommendations, 6-7, 9, 285-286, 508, 510-514, 517-519
single boreholes, 252-261
in single fractures (cubic law), 120-121, 123, 124, 283
single-phase, 317
single porosity transport, 323-324, 463
subsurface flow, 411-413
tracer test analysis, 244, 282, 284, 293, 312, 324
uncertainty, 318
unsaturated zones, 376-380
volume averaging, 321, 331-332, 384, 387
Flowmeters
acoustic doppler, 171
electromagnetic, 171
heat pulse, 171, 217, 218, 230-232
high-resolution, 217-219
in hydraulic tests, 246
impeller, 205
permeability measurements, 226
Fluid conductivity log, 170, 205
Fluid flow in fractures.
See also Flow and transport models;
Hydraulic properties;
Permeability
aperture of fractures and, 48, 87
contact areas, 383-384
continuum properties, 351-356
critical necks, 115, 120, 124, 126, 512
deformation and, 112, 114, 419
diagenesis and, 87
dynamic conditions, 130-132
effective stress and, 119-120, 407-410, 500
elasticity and, 114-115
faults, 73-74
in fractured porous medium, 259, 292-293
friction factor, 121-122
geometry, 252-259, 260-263, 383-384
in granular media, 6
gravity-driven, 130-132, 153-155, 430
infiltration, 153-155
interaction zones and, 54
interface changes, 429-430
irreducible, 120
isothermal, 384
issues, 500
linear, 252, 253-254, 256, 257, 258
linear-radial, 256
measurement, 121
monitoring methods, 219-222, 223, 230-232, 465
multiphase, 7, 376, 380-382, 426, 512-513, 517
normal stress conditions, 118-124
numerical models, 9, 13-14, 18
one-dimensional, 254
oscillatory behavior, 378, 513
percolation theory, 354-356, 393-394, 395
phase changes, 376-377, 426-429, 442, 512-513
phase displacement, 512-513
pressure gradient, 122-123
pulsation, 132
radial, 252, 253, 254, 255-256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 262, 263, 292-293
radial-spherical, 254-255, 260
repositories, 20
Reynold's equation for, 140
shear stress conditions, 124-125
single-phase, 118-126, 147, 317, 384, 511-512
spherical, 252, 255, 257, 258, 261
static and quasi-static conditions, 127-130
stress and, 9-10, 118-126, 411-413
thermal effects on, 125-126
thermoelasticity and, 424-426
three-dimensional, 353
123, 124, 126-127, 144, 145-146, 156
transient, 323
two-phase, 7, 127-132, 378, 517
in unsaturated zones, 376-380
void geometry and, 2, 12, 112, 120, 121, 147, 500
Fluid pressures
and aperture changes, 130, 407-413
capillary, 380
density of fractures and, 177
and effective stress, 14
and fracture initiation and growth, 415-416
gradients, 122-123
and rate of flow, 122-123
reservoir, 23
stress sensitivity tests, 416-418
thrust faults and, 73
Fluid replacement log, 170
Fluid storage structures, underground, 24-25
Fluids.
See also Pore fluids
Folded rock layers, 35
Formation microscanner, 169, 205, 211
Formation of fractures.
See also Hydraulic fracturing;
Hydrofractures
crustal, 446-447
flaws and, 35-42
fluid pressures and, 413-426
initiation, 35-42, 313, 364, 415-416
internal structures and, 42-44
mechanisms, 1, 2, 11, 33-35, 501-503
networks, 52-56
propagation, 35, 40, 42-44, 66, 413, 414, 418-419, 446-447
sets of fractures and, 63-77
shear zones, 502
slow burial and88
stress concentration and, 35-42
Fractal analysis, 77, 80-81, 82, 108, 141, 361, 373
Fractal geometry, 106, 256-257, 287, 361, 370-371
Fracture formation. See Formation of fractures
Fracture-mechanics.
See also Formation of fractures
geometric models based on, 363-366
in hydraulically significant fractures, 501-503
Fracture networks/systems
connectivity, 126-127, 349, 395, 410
formation, 52-56
hydraulically conductive, 2, 11-14, 315, 381, 501-510
induced changes to, 405-406
see also Deformation;
Effective stress;
Extraction of fluids;
Hydraulic fracturing;
Hydrofracturing;
Injection;
Mineralization models, 4, 7, 81, 83, 381
see also Discrete network simulation models
multiphase flow in, 381
multiple-joint, 67
origin and development, 7-8, 11
permeability, 177
prediction and control of changes, 4, 14, 519-524
research recommendations, 7-8
semihorizontal, 179-180
shear zones, 360-361
stochastic, 286
Fracture patterns
cross-cutting, 64
defined, 12
extrapolation of, 77-81
in Frontier Formation sandstones, 88-91
hydraulically significant, 502
mechanical analyses, 34
multiple-fault, 70-77
multiple-joint, 63-70
polygonal, 64-66, 311, 337, 339-340, 341, 342, 263
Fracture properties.
See also specific properties
detection-related, 222, 503-505
fluid pressures and, 413-426
models, 418-419
scale-dependent, 360-361
scaling up of, 10, 77-81, 287, 503
Fracture Research Investigation, 296-302
Fracture sets
in Frontier Formation sandstones, 88-91
modeling, 361
multiple-fault patterns, 70-77
multiple-joint patterns, 63-70
physical characteristics, 48-51, 63-77
Fracture zones
alternating permeable/impermeable, 24
in crystalline rocks, 187, 479-487
cutoffs, 434
detection of, 174-175, 187, 196
fault, 24, 48, 51, 58-63, 64, 74, 93
Finnsjön project, 303-304
low-dipping, 479-487
orientation, 196
subvertical, 17, 215, 482, 485-486
in topographic lows, 17
well tests, 13
Fractures.
See also Faults;
Fluid flows in fractures;
Joints;
other types of fractures
classification, 30-33
data sets, 81
engineering-related problems, 1, 14-25
interdisciplinary approach to study of, 500-501
locating, see Detection of fractures
parallel, see Fracture sets
Frictional wear surfaces, 106
Frontier Formation, 44-45, 88-91
G
Geological observations, 170-171, 315
Geometry of fractures.
See also Fracture patterns;
Void geometry
apertures, 48, 67, 87, 407-413
clustering of fractures, 362-363
crack tips, 39, 40, 56, 58, 415
fluid pressure changes and, 407-413
hydrofracturing and, 10
issues, 500
models/modeling, 315-316, 364-366, 381, 418
orientation, 15, 67-70, 172, 185, 186, 343-344, 500
phase, 127-132
polygonal, 33-34
prediction methods, 41-42
rotation, 185
spatial relationships between neighboring fractures, 361-367
stress effects, 52, 104-118, 503
surface observations, 186
surface roughness, 105-106
trace lengths, 46-48, 52, 80-81, 90, 91, 344-345, 363-366
Geophysical methods.
See also individual methods
fluid flow monitoring, 219-222
limitations, 501
Geostatistical techniques, 77
Geothermal systems
hot dry rock systems, 16-17, 375, 425-427
models, 384
reservoirs, 16-17, 26, 200, 205-206, 380, 384, 422, 424, 487-492
self-sealing, 440
Geysers geothermal field, 26, 188, 457, 487-492, 514
Glass, en-echelon dilating fractures, 53
Gouge zones, 42, 58, 92, 118, 125
Granitic rock
batholith, 208
detection of fractures in, 184, 185, 193, 198, 207, 208, 209, 216, 219
electrical properties, 139
faults in, 51, 59-60, 61, 62, 63
flow in, 119, 288-289, 294-295
fracture formation in, 33-34, 43-44, 46-48, 53, 185
microcracks in, 143
pluton, 209
tracer experiment in, 221-222, 294-295
well logs in, 228
Gravity and fluid flows, 130-132
Green River Basin, 88
Grimsel Pass test site, Switzerland, 193, 194, 286, 296-302, 313, 315, 368, 417-418, 456, 513-514
Grooves, 32
Groundwater.
See also Fluid flow in fractures
advection of heat, 384-385
age, 465-467
chemistry, 465-468
contamination, 1, 17-22, 27, 230-231, 311, 380, 381-382, 429, 438
Drawdown Experiment, 390-392
flow measurement, 217, 230-231, 280, 282, 470-471
hydraulic tests, 244, 253, 262, 265
infiltration to, 465
large-scale movement, 459-460, 464-468
pressure, 419-420
tracer tests, 192, 276, 280, 282, 465-467
velocity, 468
Grouting/grout, 10, 222, 421, 431-439, 521, 522
H
Hackles, 90
Hanford waste site, 456
Hard Rock Laboratory, 517
Hayward/Roger Creek fault, 77
Hazardous wastes. See Toxic and hazardous wastes
Heat
''mining," 16
from radioactive waste, 19
transfer in fractured rock, 384-385, 425
Hertz contacts, 115
Horizontal Loop Electromagnetic Method (HLEM), 182
Hot dry rock systems, 16-17, 375, 425-427
Hvorslev formula, 260
Hydraulic fracturing.
See also Hydrofracture(s);
Injection
control of, 414
defined, 413
and earthquakes, 415
in fault zones, 72
fluid flow monitoring with, 219-220
geothermal reservoir creation, 16-17
hydraulic tests and, 247
and in situ leaching, 22
injection tests, 199-200, 217, 226
natural mechanisms, 44
and petroleum production, 16, 414, 415-416, 424
principles, 413-414
research recommendations, 522
rock slope stability, 24-25, 415
solids addition, 430-439
water supply stimulation, 17
Hydraulic properties.
See also Fluid flow in fractures
conductivity, 62, 66-67, 70, 72, 188, 201, 205, 216, 220, 244-245, 261, 266-267, 315, 352-354, 379, 406, 501, 515
and detection of fractures, 191
electrical properties and, 140-146, 148, 504
of fault zones, 61-62
geophysical properties and, 501, 504-505, 506
inferring, 465
interpretation of, 223
modeling, 367-373
quantitative interpretations, 506
seismic properties and, 138
stress sensitivity, 104
transmissivity, 244-245, 247-251, 260, 261, 267
tube wave amplitude and, 216
Hydraulic tests
analysis of, 244, 255-256, 257-261, 282, 290-291, 296-302, 462-463
conductance distribution measurements, 515
conductivity tensor of a rock mass, 288-289
constant-flow, 247, 248-249, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 264
constant-head, 247, 249, 258, 260, 261
diagnostic well test analysis, 296-302
drillstem, 252
flow geometry, 252-259, 261-264
models of, 244, 252-261, 264, 269-272, 290-291, 322, 508-509
multiple boreholes, 264-272, 288-291, 371, 374-375, 389, 463, 483-484, 509
with packers, 226, 244-245, 246, 249, 252, 262, 265, 463, 470, 483 , 507
pressure pulse tests, 247, 249-251, 265
principles, 243-244
research recommendations, 508, 509
single borehole, 245-264, 478, 507-508
sinusoidal pressure test, 265
slug, 247, 249, 251, 261-263, 264, 411-412
steady-state analysis, 259-261
and transmissivity, 244-245, 247-251, 260, 261, 267
wellbore storage effects, 245, 261-263
Hydraulically conductive fractures, identification, location, and
characterization, 315, 472-473, 501-510
Hydrocarbon.
See also Multiwell Experiment Site
production, 6, 15-16, 204-205, 222, 414, 475-479
reservoirs, 6, 15-16, 84, 86, 87, 144, 173, 315, 380, 415-416, 424 , 429
Hydrofracture(s).
See also Formation of fractures;
Hydraulic fracturing
acoustic emission analysis of, 199-200, 219
failure, 416
modeling, 122
monitoring, 418
natural, 446-447
unintentional, 414
Hydrogeological systems, modeling, 375-385, 412-413
Hydrology of accretionary wedges, 73-74
Hydromechanical models, 412, 413
Hydrophone tube-wave analysis, 188
Hydrophones, 193
Hydrostatic gradient, 411
Hydrothermal processes, 118
Hysteresis effect, 112, 114, 119, 129
I
Igneous rocks, 33-34
Illinois Environmental Protection Agency, 27
Image space processing, 187, 196, 470
Imaging
differencing-based, 8
enhancement techniques, 210-211
In situ facilities.
See also Field tests;
specific facilities and programs
recommendations, 5-6, 286, 503, 505, 510, 514, 524
In situ leaching, 22
Injection
and aperture changes, 407
flooding, 414
of fluids, 16-17, 185, 199-200, 407
high pressure, 18
nitrogen, 409
petroleum production, 414, 415-416
pressure determinations, 416-417
of solids, 430-439
tests, 199-200, 217, 226, 407-409
of wastes, 18
wells, 122, 407, 412, 413, 414
Interference tests, 478, 483-484
Interferometers, 177
Iron hydroxide, 86
Isotropic rocks, 64
J
Jointed faults, 30
Joints.
See also Faulted joints
dike-parallel, 34
domains, 67-69
en-echelon, 56
geometry, 44-48, 52, 56, 63-64
in granite, 46-48
hydraulic conductivity, 66-67, 70
interaction and linkage, 52, 67
in isotropic rock, 64
in massive rock, 46-48
in mud, 65
parent, 56
polygonal patterns, 64-66
in sandstone formations, 48, 56-58, 59, 70
sheared, 118
single, 44-48
spacing of, 48-49, 50, 51, 56, 58, 66-67
strata-bound, 45
surface features, 31-32, 33, 106
thermal stresses and, 64-66
in volcanic rocks, 45-46, 61, 65, 66
K
Karst, 406
Kelvin rheology, 137
L
Laboratory results, scaling up, 10, 287, 511-512
Lac du Bonnet batholith, 390-392, 479-487
Layered rocks
faults in, 60
joints in, 44-45
Le Chatelier's principle, 441
Levy-Lee model, 361
Linear flow method, 119
Little Coal Creek outcrop, 89
Loess, Quaternary, 27
Logs/logging.
See also Well logs
acoustic waveform methods, 133, 212-217
advantages and disadvantages, 200
imaging, 206-212
induction, 220
fluid-replacement, 218-219
M
Malpasset Dam, 415
Mapping of fractures, 460-461
Massive rocks/formations, 46, 61, 447, 469
Mathematical models. See Discrete network simulation models;
Equivalent continuum simulation models;
Models/modeling
Maxwell rheology, 137
Mechanical analyses, fracture prediction with, 41
Metal injection tests, 108, 110, 111
Metamorphic foliations, 60
Methatetical-precipitation-type solutions, 433
Microcracks, en-echelon dilating, 43-44
Microresistivity logs, 204-205
Mineralization.
See also Chemical processes
cement bridges, 87
fillings, 31, 33-34, 54, 55, 118, 484
and permeability, 84-87, 125, 500
precipitation and dissolution in fractures, 14, 17, 24, 58, 74, 389 , 440-441, 500
research recommendations, 500, 521
temperature and, 440-441
and void geometry, 118, 126, 500
Mining/mines, 18, 22-23, 125, 220, 420, 440
Mirror Lake, New Hampshire, research site, 456, 459-469, 514, 517
Mismatch length scale, 108, 111, 118, 119
Mixed-mode fractures, 30
Model I fractures. See Joints
Models/modeling.
See also Discrete network simulation models;
Equivalent continuum simulation models;
other specific models
applications, 7, 9, 13-14, 310-311
asperity, 115
assessment of, 412-413, 523-524
averaging properties in, 321, 331-332, 380, 383, 387
boundary-element based, 419
cellular, 418-419
computational requirements, 515
conceptual models, 3, 4, 6-7, 13-14, 141, 307-309, 310-316, 367-368, 375-377, 380-382, 385-386, 391-392, 425, 474-475, 508, 510-514, 516 , 517, 518-519
coupled deformation-flow, 419
coupled heat-flow-stress, 425-426, 523-524
data collection requirements, 516
deformation and failure, 115-116, 419, 422
development, 3, 4, 14, 385-386, 510-511
faults, 70
geometry of fractures, 315-316
geostatistical, 387-388
heat transfer in fractured rocks, 384-385
heuristic, 364
hybrid, 351-358
in situ experiments and, 518
inverse methods, 272, 373, 516
inversion techniques, 189, 191-192, 195-196, 198-199, 369-370
iterated function systems, 516
kinetic, 383
Levy-Lee, 362
linear exchange, 383
lumping/equivalencing in, 418, 419, 515-516
mathematical constructs, 3, 9, 13, 257-258, 307-309, 316-319, 351-358, 373-375, 514, 516, 523-524
multiple continuum models, 514-515
nearest-neighbor, 362
neural network, 373
numerical, 6-7, 9, 13-14, 18, 56, 58, 70, 118, 126, 128-129, 180, 270-272, 290-291, 321, 379, 386-387, 393-394, 475, 514-519
overburden effects, 180
parameter estimation, 3, 259-261, 271-272, 472, 517
parent-daughter, 362
pipe, 335-336
principles, 307-309
recommendations, 6, 9, 285-286, 379, 387-388, 512, 513, 519-519
resolution of detection methods, 180
San Andreas fault zone, 92-93
scaling relationships, 310, 358-375, 381, 383, 394
seismic properties of fractures, 132, 133-134, 150-152
shear displacement, 118
single fractures, 6, 13, 282-284, 373-375, 511-512, 515, 517
skin effects, 264
stepover zones, 77
terranes, 67
tomographic data, 189, 191-192, 195-196, 198-199
validation, 518
voids, 111
war zone, 362
wave propagation, 217
well logs and, 203, 204, 324-325, 371
wellbore storage, 264
Mohr-Coulomb faulting theory, 92
Monterey formation, 442
Montmorillonite gouge, 92
Monzonitic gneiss, 290-291
Moye formula, 260
Mudcake, 204-205
Multiwell Experiment Site, Colorado, 87, 407-409, 457, 475-479
N
Network simulation models. See Discrete network simulation models
Nevada Test Site, 457
Niagara Falls, New York, 457
Nuclear Energy Association, 469
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 5
Nuclear waste, 18-21, 193, 375, 376, 390, 422, 424, 428, 442-443, 479, 513, 514
Numerical models/modeling. See Models/modeling
O
Oceanic crust, 53
Ohm's law, 140
Oil-filled rocks, 175
Opening-mode fractures, 34-35, 42, 52, 58, 67.
See also Joints
Optical methods, 105, 212, 503
Oracle site, Arizona, 288-289, 329-330, 456
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 469
Overburden
and detection of fractures, 180, 182, 184, 185, 186
mapping of, 185
pressure, 410-411
P
Packer(s)
sleeve, 434
tests, 185, 217, 218, 226, 244-245, 246, 262, 265, 367, 461, 463, 483, 507
Paleomagnetic techniques, 71
Pelitic rocks, fault zones in, 64
Perched zone, 378
Percolation
fracture connectivity and, 410
modeling, 111, 124, 129-131, 517
theory, 128, 354-356, 393-394, 395
two-dimensional network, 128
Permeability, matrix, 111, 500, 512, 517
Permeability of fractures.
See also Fluid flow in fractures
anisotropy in, 118, 270, 320, 410, 422
aperture of fractures and, 67
clay-fluid interactions and, 125-126
compressional regions, 55-56
density and, 177
deformation and, 9-10, 43, 503-504
at depth, 84
diagenesis and, 84-87
dilatancy and, 124-125
drawdown behavior and, 87, 463
effective stress and, 9-10, 16-17, 87, 111, 123, 128, 407-409, 412 , 414, 420-422, 470
and formation factor, 143-144, 145
interaction of faults and, 54-56
large-scale, 352-353
in lava beds, 67
measurement of, 119-120, 144, 226
mechanisms promoting, 84
mineralization and, 84-87, 125, 440, 500
models/modeling, 84, 121, 143-144, 322, 351-354, 380-381, 512
networks, 177
and petroleum reservoirs, 15
phase changes and, 428
seismic properties and, 12, 92, 138
of single fractures, 119
skin effects, 261, 263-264, 417
structures and, 156-159
thermal gradients and, 125
tube waves and, 216
Petroleum reservoirs. See Hydrocarbon reservoirs
Photoelectric transformers, 206
Piceance Basin, 475-479
Pierre Shale, South Dakota, 457
Piping, 23
Planar fractures, 376-377
Plate boundaries, deformation along, 41
Pore fluids, in San Andreas fault, 92-93
Pore pressures, 15-16, 22-23, 87, 92, 185, 407, 410, 411, 415
Poroelasticity, 407
Porosity of fractures
defined, 144
for discontinuous systems, 357
electrical conductivity and, 138-140, 148, 178
fracture density and, 177
and hydraulic conductivity, 67, 357
indicators, 86
Porous medium behavior, 322-328, 380, 383, 502
Power spectral density, 106
Power spectrum for texture, 105-106, 108, 109, 118
Precipitation of solids in fractures, 440-442
Pressure. See Fluid pressures;
Pore pressures
Pressure solution surfaces, 30, 126
Probability density function for heights, 105-106
Process zone, 219
Propagation of fractures. See Fracture formation
Proppants/propping, 416, 431, 448
Q
Quadrant flow method, 119
R
Radar
acoustic doppler flowmeter, 171
borehole, 8, 170, 193-194, 196-198, 224-225, 469
directional, 224-225, 461, 469
fracture detection with, 182-185, 193-194, 196-198
ground-penetrating, 169, 182-185
Site Characterization and Validation Project, 469-475
tomography, 193-194, 221-222, 469, 506-507
Radial flow method, 119
Radio imaging methods, 194-195
Radioactive waste. See Nuclear waste
Red Gate Woods, Illinois, 456
Reflection seismology
azimuthal amplitude variation with offset, 176
costs, 177-178
dim spots, 173-174
oil industry applications, 173, 175, 234-235
P-wave, 168, 172, 173-176, 187, 505
research recommendations, 505-506
S-wave, 168, 172, 174, 176-178, 188
single-hole methods, 8
surveys, 8, 173, 175, 176, 177, 461
tomographic inversion and, 198-199, 462, 505
Reflectivity.
See also Radar;
Reflection seismology
transmission tomography and, 198-199
Reliability and risk analysis, 443-444
Relief fractures, 477
Remote compressive loads, 42
Remote sensing methods, 175, 186-200, 220.
See also specific methods
Research recommendations
chemical processes in fractures, 10, 500, 520-521, 523
conceptual models, 6-7, 511-513, 518-519
continuum approximations, 332
detection of fractures, 8-9, 505-507
electromagnetic surveys, 505
field tests, 506, 518, 521-523
fluid flow and transport, 6-7, 9-10, 378, 379, 502, 512, 513
fracture zone indices, 508
geophysical methods, 444, 505-507
heat transfer, 385
hydraulic tests, 509
hydrofracturing, 522
geostatistical models, 387-388
grout injection in fracture systems, 522-523
in situ facilities/experiments, 5-6, 503, 505, 510, 514, 518, 521-522, 524
induced changes to fracture systems, 444
joints, 58
laboratory studies, 520-521
logging devices, 507
mathematical models, 523-524
mineralization in fractures, 444, 523
numerical models, 9, 379, 516-519, 523-524
origin and development of fracture sytems, 7-8, 44, 502-503
oscillatory flow behavior, 378, 513
permeability of fractures, 520
properties of fractures and matrix, 504
reflection seismography, 505
seismic surveys, 505
shear-wave propagation, 504, 505
solute transport, 285-286, 332, 517-519
stress-flow relationships, 9-10, 520, 521-522
target agencies and groups, 5
tracer tests, 285-286, 509, 517
unsaturated fractured rocks, 379
void geometry characterization, 503-504
waste isolution and treatment, 10
Reservoirs, fractured
characterization of, 41-42, 173, 205-206, 430, 475-479, 487-492
and earthquakes, 415
fluid flows, 309, 407-410, 411-412, 491-492
fluid production in, 420
geothermal, 16-17, 26, 200, 205-206, 380, 384, 422, 424, 426-428, 487-492
grout curtains and blankets, 436
hydraulic fracturing in, 415-416
hydrocarbon, 6, 15-16, 84, 86, 87, 144, 173, 315, 380, 407-409, 415 , 422, 426, 428, 429-430, 475-479
idealization/simulation of, 325-327, 384
mineralization in, 84, 86, 490-491
models, 309
permeability, 87
phase changes in, 426-427
pore pressures, 87
shear-wave anisotropy in, 188, 233-235
surface storage, 23
water coning, 429-430
Resistive formations, 193, 195
Reynold's equation for fluid flow, 140
Rock slopes, natural and artificially cut
failure modes, 419-420
flow under, 412
fractures in, 22-23
stability, 25
Roughness, fracture surface
and anisotropy, 118
and deformation, 112
friction factor, 121-122
and solute transport, 126
Rubblized zones, 201
S
Safety factor design, 443
Salt formations, 20, 67, 68, 193, 198
Saltwater intrusion, 430
San Andreas fault, 77, 79, 92-93
San Francisco Bay Area fault patterns, 77, 79
San Gregorio-Hosgri faults, 77
Sandstones
fault formation in, 42-43, 60-61, 62
fracture patterns in, 40, 88-91
Frontier Formation, 88-91
gas reservoir, 407-409
hydrocarbon reservoirs in, 86, 475-479
joint formation in, 48, 56-58, 59, 70
mineralization of fractures in, 85, 86
porous, 40, 42-43, 62, 143, 198
stress concentrators, 40
Satellite imaging, 186
Saturation/pressure relationships, 129
Scale/scaling issues
in discrete network simulation models, 358-375, 394
fracture properties, 10, 77-81, 287, 360-361, 503
geometry of fractures, 81, 287
in hydrogeological simulation models, 385, 412-413
laboratory results, 10, 287, 511-512
relationships in models, 358-375, 381, 383
size/scale of fractures, 1, 344-345
universal scaling law, 394
Schist, fluid flow and transport in, see Mirror Lake
Schlumberger sounding, 179-180
Schmidt net, 343-344
Seams, 31
Sedimentary rocks
density of fractures, 177
detrital, 40
faults in, 59
flow in, 119
hydrocarbon production from, 177, 475-479
hydraulic tests in, 266
hysteresis effect, 114
in situ research facilities, 510
power spectral density, 106
stress concentrators, 40
transmission tomography, 191
Seismic displacement discontinuity
Seismic properties.
See also Shear waves
attenuation, 134, 147-148, 188
discrete effects, 134-138, 148
and hydraulic properties, 138
predictive capabilities, 469-475
propagation of energy, 2, 12, 15, 504
velocity, 132, 133, 135, 137, 147-148, 188
Seismic survey methods.
See also Reflection seismology
in hydrocarbon exploration, 15
passive, 490
tomography, 193, 194, 462, 507
vertical seismic profiling, 134, 168, 187-188, 462
Vibroseis method, 490
Self-similar systems theory, 139
Sellafield, England, 458
Semivariogram analysis, 77
Serpentine formations, 86
Shear fractures. See Faults
Shear stress
and dam failure, 415
and deformation, 111, 112, 415
displacement, 116
and fluid flow in fractures, 124-125
shear displacement under, 137
and void geometry, 116-118
Shear waves
attenuation, 188
reflection seismology and, 168, 172, 174, 176-178
shadow zone, 219-220
splitting, 188, 217, 223, 234-235, 504
velocity, 188
Shear zones
similarity of, 360-361
Shearing-mode fractures, 42, 58
Sierpinski gasket (modified), 287, 370-371
Sierra, Nevada, California, 46-48, 51, 185
Silo field, 234
Siltstone-sandstone beds, 44, 45
Simplon Tunnel, 24
Simulated annealing, 369-370
Site Characterization and Validation Project. See Stripa Project
Skin depth measures, 182
Skin effects, 261, 263-264, 296, 299, 417
Slant-Hole Completion Test, 476, 477
Slickensides. See Striations
SLINGRAM, 182
Slip
and formation of faults, 42, 44, 71
hydraulic fracturing and, 418
length of faults and, 50
pore fluids and, 92
shear heating during, 93
spacing of faults and, 49-50
Slopes. See Rock slopes
Snell's law, 191
Spalling, 208
Solids.
See also Grouting;
Proppants
added to fractures, 430-439
alteration of, 442
colloidal suspensions, 442-443
dissolution and precipitation, 440-442
phase changes, 442
redistribution by chemical processes, 439-443
Solute transport.
See also Chemical processes;
Flow and transport models
flux approach, 286, 319-321, 380
fracture channels, 273-274
multiphase flow, 156-159, 380-382
nonaqueous-phase liquids (NAPL), 381-382, 429
processes of interest, 272-275, 382
radionuclides, 443
research recommendations, 517-518
tracer tests, 272-275, 282, 284-285
in unsaturated zones, 376-380
velocity, 511
void geometry and, 126-127
Stacking, 173
Statistical modeling
continuum transport, 359
of void geometry, 108, 111, 146
Stiff loading frames, 44
Stiffness, fracture, 135-137, 138, 504
Stochastic methods, 81, 321, 328-331, 337-340, 387-388, 475, 514, 515
Strain gauges, 417-418
Stress concentration/distribution
en-echelon fractures, 54-56
at fault zones, 59
at flaws, 35-42
fracture geometry and, 52, 54, 104-118, 185, 503
and fracture initation, 35-42
fracture origin and, 118
at plate boundaries, 41
and pressure solution, 126
Stress.
See also Effective stress;
Shear stress
and fluid flow in fractures, 9-10, 118-126
and geometric properties of fractures, 104-118
and hydrological properties, 104
normal, 112, 117, 118-124, 137, 420
origin of, 1
regional fields, 40
and void geometry, 4, 112-116, 146-147
Stripa Project, Sweden, 187, 190, 196, 198, 225, 294-295, 313, 314 , 335, 337, 339, 341, 367, 368-369, 370, 371, 428, 456, 469-475, 508, 513
Structures.
See also Engineered structures;
Transport structures;
Underground structures;
specific types of structures
and fracture permeability, 156-159
and solute transport, 156-159
two-phase, 156-159
Stylolites. See Pressure solution surfaces
Subsurface fluid compartments, 177
Superfund sites, 27
Surface.
See also Roughness
conduction, 139
fracture orientation observations, 186
Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company, 517
Synclines, 88
T
Technology.
See also Geophysical technologies
Tectonic events, and fracture formation, 35, 41, 73
Temperature
hydraulic fracturing and, 417, 424
hydraulic tests and, 245
and mineralization, 440-441
Terranes, 67
Tests.
See also Field tests;
Hydraulic tests;
Tracer tests
stress sensitivity, 416-418
Theim formula, 260
Thermal
gradients, 125
shrinkage, 17
Thermodynamic equilibrium, 129
Thermoelasticity, and hydrofracture, 424-426
Thrust sheet, 74
Till, 27
Tomography.
See also Transmission tomography
electric resistivity, 169
inversion methods, 189, 191-192, 195-196, 198-199
P-wave, 168
Topographic lows, 17
Topography of rough surfaces, 105, 107, 140
Tortuosity, 119-120, 121-122, 123, 124, 126-127, 144, 145-146, 156
Toughness, fracture, 42
Toxic and hazardous wastes, 1, 17-18, 311, 375, 383, 513
Tracer tests
applications, 2, 12, 220, 221-222, 465
adsorption, 274-275
analysis of, 282-285, 293, 469
in chalk formation (fractured), 292-293
channelized transport, 273-274, 284-285
convergent flow, 279-280, 292-293
diffusion into stagnant water and rock matrix, 274, 284-285
divergent flow, 278-279
in granite, 294-295
groundwater flow paths, 192, 276, 465-467, 492
interpretation of, 509
large-scale flow, 294-295
methodology, 276-282
models/modeling, 244, 282, 284, 293, 312
natural gradient, 276-277
with packers, 277
principles, 243-244
saline, 192, 193-194, 220, 221-222
research needs, 285-286, 509, 517
reservoir characterization, 478, 492
shear fractures, 127
solute transport processes, 126, 127, 272-275, 282
and tomography, 192, 193-194, 507
Transmission tomography
borehole measurements, 188-196, 221-222
electric resistivity, 195-196
limitations, 505-506
principles, 188-192, 220-221, 505
and reflection data, 198-199
research recommendations, 505
resolution, 462-463
Transmissivity, fracture, 16, 244-245, 247, 345-346, 388, 470
Transport structures, underground, 24-25
Travis Peak, Texas, 457
Tribology, 105
Tunnels, 23, 24, 125, 185, 186, 196, 378, 434, 437, 438
U
Uncertainty in engineering, 443-445
Underground Research Laboratory, Manitoba, 20-21, 184, 187, 209, 313, 315, 390-392, 417-418, 456, 479-487, 513, 517
Underground structures.
See also Caverns;
Tunnels
fluid storage, 24-25
fractures and, 23-25
stability, 22
transport, 24-25
University of Waterloo, 456
Unsaturated fractured rock, flow and transport in, 376-380
Uplifts, 77
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 5
U.S. Department of Energy, 5, 376, 407-409, 475-479
U.S. Department of the Interior, 5
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 5, 27
U.S. Geological Survey, 5, 27, 459-469, 517
V
Velocity, seismic wave propagation, 133
Veneziano polygonal model, 337, 339-340, 341
Vertical fractures, 173, 177, 180, 185, 215, 253-254, 265, 270, 446 , 505
Vesicules, 67
Void geometry
apertures, 106-109, 111, 118, 126-127, 128
castings of, 107, 108, 109-111, 129-130
chemical processes and, 439-443
characterization techniques, 107-108, 503
deformation, 124
and detection of fractures, 2
effective stress and, 406-426
fluid flow, 2, 12, 112, 120, 121, 122-123, 124, 138, 147, 500
fracture surface roughness and, 107, 112
mineral infilling and, 118, 126, 500
origin of fracture and, 118
parallel-plate, 121
and solute transport, 126-127
statistical modeling, 111
stress effects on, 111-118, 124, 140, 146-147, 503
Volcanic rocks, 33-34, 45-46, 60, 379
W
Wake/Chatham, North Carolina, 457
Waste disposal sites, 74, 193, 376, 442-443
Waste isolation and treatment, 10
Waste Isolation Pilot Project, New Mexico, 20, 327-328, 457
Water.
See also Fluid flow in fractures;
Groundwater
coning, 429-430
infiltration, 58
Water supply reservoirs, 18
Well logs/logging, conventional
acoustic, 227
advantages and disadvantages, 202-203, 501
applications in fracture studies, 2, 3, 12, 13, 202, 203-204, 226-229
caliber log, 170, 227-228, 230, 231, 232
core analysis combined with, 202
density log, 170
fluid conductivity log, 170, 205
fluid replacement log, 170
models based on, 203, 204, 324-325, 371
neutron log, 170, 226, 227, 228
resolution, 204
resistivity measurements, 144, 170, 204-205, 226, 228
Well test analysis, diagnostic, 296-302
Wellbore storage effects, 245, 261-263
Wells
drilling technology, 416, 476, 477
in geothermal fields, 26
hydraulic stimulation of, 231-232
oil, 426
orientation, 416
phase changes in, 426
recharge, 278
Whiteshell Research Area, 390
Wolff net, 343-344
Y
Yibal oil field, Oman, 175
Yucca Mountain, Nevada, 5, 6, 9, 19-20, 60, 80, 325-326, 376, 379