Materials and Man's Needs Materials Science and Engineering -- Volume II, The Needs, Priorities, and Opportunities for Materials Research (1975) / Chapter Skim
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4. National Objectives and the Role of Materials Science and Engineering
4. National Objectives and the Role of Materials Science and Engineering
Pages 1-136
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Landsberg and Roland W Schmitt of COSMAT Panel VI and on inputs from several of their colleagues on COSMAT and at the General Electric Company.
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We may call them aspirations, principles, concepts, ideals, or goals, if we like. Below this towering top comes a layer of other comprehensive national goals that embraces and defines areas of endeavor.
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"growth" as a national goal. That legislation was the Employment Act of 1946, which was aimed at establishing "maximum employment, production and purchasing power" as a national goal, or as a trinity of goals.
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Change is also a characteristic of the goals of interest to the materials community: change in the priorities among goals and changing emphasis within each. Changing priorities show up clearly when we consider either federal funding alone, overall public spending, or expenditures as reflected in the Gross National Product.
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2 presents society ' s total expenditures in the 1960's, cast in terms of specified national goals as patterned by a continuing study of the National Planning Association. Significant features of the presentation are the slower than average rise of national defense, agriculture, international aid, housing, and R&D.
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National Planning Association 678.0 931.4 37.5
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4-7 Table 4.3 Expenditures for Private Consumption, 1962 to 1969 (in billions of 1969 dollars) Expenditures in Percent Increase Category 1962 1969 1962 to 1969 Durable goods $ 52.0 $ 90.4 72.5 Nondurable goods 193.0 247.5 28.0 Services 174.5 242.0 38.5 All categories 418.5 579.6 38.5 Note: Details may not add to totals due to rounding Source: National Planning Association
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development of new ways to perform the same function (transmitting a telephone signal through transparent fibers in conjunction with light-emitting semiconductor diodes at the transmitting and semiconductor photodetector diodes at the receiving end, or substitution of integrated circuits for transistors and vacuum tubes, or development of wholly new adhesives)
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Nevertheless, these broad areas do present many important challenges to materials technology and some of these, in the area of defense, the supply of and demand for materials, and automation of industrial processes and methods, are briefly described. This chapter concludes with an overview of goal-oriented materials research opportunities and needs' many of which apply to several economic sectors.
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4-10 a, oo ED Cal girl u So _U)
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4-11 GO so - ~ an al Em v o so o a: em U
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Yet, the national goal of abundant, low-cost, reliable, and environmentally sound energy is unlikely to change. Thus, what follows deals generally with goals that may be assumed to be prominent for some time but the specifics of which are subject to modification.
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One of the reasons why national goals for telecommunications have seemed less urgent than they might have been lies with the structure of the nation's telecommunications network and the way it is managed.
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Whitehead, Director, Office of Telecommunications Policy, 4 during the past 20 years the communications industries' contribution to the national economy increased by over 500%, a growth rate almost double that of the economy as a whole and substantially in excess of the rates of such important segments as transportation and trade. The Bell System alone has been responsible for a major share of the nation's business expenditures for new plant and equipment, 10 billion dollars in 1970 (about 12% of the nation's total)
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4-16 Table 4.6 Types of Equipment in Telecommunications Systems Terminal Equipment (Sending and Receiving) Telephones Television cameras Television receiver Alphanumeric displays Switching Equipment Relays Ferreeds Transmission Equipment Wire Radio and antennas Microwave and antennas Undersea cable Computers Medical sensors Industrial sensors Electronic switches Memory devices Coaxial cable Microwave waveguide Satellites
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But it was the discovery of the transistor at Bell Labs in 1947 that really opened the era in which materials technology became inextricably interwoven with advances in TC technology. Practical tansistors called for hitherto unheard of achievements in material (germanium and silicon)
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The increasing demand for TC's can only be met by continuous heavy investment in R&D aimed at finding new and better devices, improved switching and transmission methods, and better materials. The communication system to support the high volume of communications projected earlier will undoubtedly be materials-based; whether the transmission is by wire, radio, coaxial cable, microwave relay or satellite, by waveguide operating at millimeter wave frequency or by glass fibers using laser sources and various optical circuit devices based upon new materials discoveries; whether the switching is by electromagnetic relays, ferreeds, vacuum tubes, transistors, or opto-electronic devices; or whether the information storage is by magnetized wires or tapes, ferrite cores, integrated circuits; holography or photochromicity.
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4-19 Table 4.7 Elements in the Telephone Handset Name Aluminum Antimony Arsenic Beryllium Bismuth Boron Cadmium Calcium Carbon Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copper Fluorine Germanium Gold Hydrogen Ind ium Iron Krypton Lead Lithium Magnesium Manganese Mercury Molybdenum Nickel Nitrogen Oxygen How Used metal alloy in dial mechanism, transmitter and receiver alloy in dial mechanism alloy in dial mechanism alloy in dial mechanism alloy in dial mechanism Touch-Tone dial mechanism color in yellow plastic housing in lubricant for moving parts plastic housing, transmitter steel parts wire insulation color in green plastic housing, metal plating, stainless steel piece parts magnetic material in receiver wires, plating, brass piece parts plastic piece parts transistors in Touch-Tone dial mechanism electrical contacts plastic housing, wire insulation Touch-Tone dial mechanism steel, magnetic materials ringer in Touch-Tone set solder in connections in lubricant for moving parts die castings in transmitter, ringer steel in piece parts color in red plastic housing magnet in receiver magnet in receiver, stainless steel parts hardened heat-treated piece parts plastic housing, wire insulation
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~1. 1C~ Silver Sodium Sulfur Tantalum Tin Titanium Tungsten Vanadium How Used electrical contacts steel in piece parts electrical contacts Touch-Ione dial mechanism plating in lubricant for moving parts steel in piece par LS integrated circuit in Trimline set solder in connections, plating color in white plastic housing lights in Princess and key sets receiver Zinc brass, die casting in Lransmitter, ringer
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Initially based on vacuum tubes, subsequently on solid-state electronics and integrated circuits. Development of ultra-straight waveguide tubing and joining techniques.
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4-22 Table 4.8, Continued Year TC Achievements Related Materials Technology Achievements 1962 Satellite Development of highly-reliable and radiation communications insensitive solid-state components; solar (TELSTAR) cells, transistors, etc.
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4-23 Table 4.9 Summary of Some Materials Innovations in TC Technology Material or Process Metals Molybdenum Permalloy Remend ur Remalloy, Permendur Vicalloy Cobalt samarium copper alloys Alnico Vibralloy Category High permeability Magnetic alloy Magnetic alloy Magentic alloys Permanent magnet High strength permanent magnet Permanent magnet Constant modulus alloy Textured copper Spring materials alloys Pure nickel alloys vacuum tube filaments High conductivity Electrical aluminum alloy conductor Thin film conductor Tantalum, tantalum nitride Lead-antimony Soft alloy Copper-beryllium ZAMAK alloys Laminated sheets of copper and copper-nickel Sea-water resistant Die-casting alloy Composites Applications in Telecommunications Loading coils; high frequency transformers and inductance coils; telephone relays and coils Fereed relays for electronic switching Telephone receive diaphragms Twistor memory devices Travelling wave tubes Telephone ringers Frequency-sensitive switches Relay springs, electrical contacts Microwave triodes; submarine cable tubes Exchange area telephone cable Thin film circuitry; integrated circuits; resistors, capacitors Cable sheath Submarine cable repeater housings Precision switchgear and handset piece-parts Laminated coins acceptable to coin telephones
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4-24 Table 4.9, Continued Material or Process Category Plastics, polymers High density Thermoplastic polyethylene Long-life Thermoplastic polyethylene Impregnated, Paper stabilized paper Continuously Rubber vulcanized rubber Ceramics and Glass Applications in Telecommunications Cable insulation; cable sheath Durable cable sheath Pulp insulated cable; metallized paper capacitors Rubber insulated cable Low-loss Ceramic insulator Supports in high-power transmitter steatite tubes High alumina Ceramic insulator Insulating supports, integrated circuit substrates Freeze-drying Preparation of Improved ceramic composition and ceramics structure Garnets Ferrites Magnetic ceramics Magnetic ceramics Nickel-manganese- Thermistors cobalt oxide Potassium-sodium- Piezoelectric niobate ceramics Lead-zirconate Piezoelectr; titanate ceramics Microwave,components, filters, isolators Magnetic memories Thermal stability of circuits Piezoelectric transducers and delay lines Microphone transducers Ultra-pure Optical glass Optical waverguides glass
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i ~ i ,. Oxide masking Varactor diodes Continuous room-temperature injection laser Rectifiers Semiconductor devices; integrated circuits Doping process Control of doping process Semiconductor devices; integrated circuits Semiconductor devices; integrated circuits Thin film growth Semicond~ct`'r and magnetic devices; integrated circuits Ihermo-compres- Connection technique Integrated circuits siren bonding J
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4-26 Table 4.9, Continued Material or Process Category Neodymium-doped Lasers yttrium aluminum ,-~rnet Applications in Telecommunications .
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1934 1951 The Communications Act of 1934; creation of the seven-man Federal Communications Commission, an independent agency with regulatory powers over communications carriers that the Mann-Elkins Act had vested in the Interstate Commerce Commission and licensing power over radio communications that the Federal Radio Commission had exercised. Creation by President Truman's executive order of a Telecommunications Advisor to the President.
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4-28 1962 Communications Satellite Act establishes COMSAT, a private corporation to be owned 50% by overseas carriers and 50% by general public. Space and ground segments open to competitive bidding.
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In parallel with these developments of broad-band transmission capabilities' new switching approaches will be evolved to take advantage of the memory and logic capabilities of integrated circuits, magnetic bubble, charge-coupled devices, and minicomputers to perform message switching with addressed blocks of digitized information. New customer services will call for developments of inexpensive, reliable, visual displays and data terminals (replacing the more cumbersom cathode-ray tube and teletypewriter, respectively)
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4-30 Table 4.10 Characteristics of New Nationwide Networks that May Have an Impact on the Public Network Median Size 5 Yrs. After Emergence Information Median Date (Thousands)
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SPACE AND DEFENSE U.S. Space Program "Now is the time to take longer strides -- time for a great new American enterprise -- time for this Nation to take a clearly leading role in space achievement which in many ways may hold the key to our future on earth." John F
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In July of 1958, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was created to conduct this country's peaceful aeronautics and space programs in accordance with broad national goals laid down by the U.S.
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Projected space programs of the U.S. will be more limited in scope and in cost than Apollo.
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~ 1969 4,237 2.3 1968 4,721 2.6 1967 5,423 3.4 1966 5,933 4 - 4 1965 5,091 4.3 1964 4,170 3.5 1963 2,552 2.3 1962 1,257 1.2 1961 744 0.8 Source: Economic Report of the President, Table B-64. Percent of Total Federal Budget Outlays January 19 72
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Few individuals involved in polymer development in the early days of the space program would have predicted that these materials with their relatively limited temperature capabilities could be used to protect man and equipment from the severe heat and structural loading environments of entry from outer space. Similarly, materials such as thermal-control coatings, lubricants, optical materials, adhesives, seals, organic and inorganic structural materials and solar-cell covers have been developed, modified, and/or tailored for the space program, It is interesting that some of these materials were exposed to more severe environments during prelaunch testing than during actual flight.
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involves three general areas, namely, manned space flight, space science and space applications. Figure 4.3 is a partial relevance tree which helps show the connections between materials and process developments and the goals of this overall space effort.
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Some Observations Regarding Materials in Space Technology A major role of the space program in materials R&D has been one of stimulation. The program creates a need which is filled directly by industry or with the direct or indirect support of NASA.
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To the extent that military force itself has social utility, the scientific and technological development of properties and processing methods for materials is of definite national importance. In World War I, technology was on the side of the blockaded Central Powers, but their resources were ultimately overtaxed, while the Allies had access by sea to the world~s minerals and agriculture.
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Only the future can disclose whether rejection of limited war will eventually force events toward general war, or whether some more acceptable alternative than war itself can be developed to serve the function historically provided by war. The role of national military force has undergone more changes during the middle years of the 20th century than in all previous history.
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Since 1950, the advent of nuclear-tipped intercontinental ballistic missiles has reduced the concept of arms races to an absurdity. The ability to destroy an adversary has advanced so much faster than has the ability to defend national territory that the national goal stated in the Preamble to the U.S.
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From page 46... ...
If we recognize that the time required to perfect a new material in the laboratory is indeterminate but considerable, and winning acceptance for it thereafter can require a decade or two, are we in effect flogging dead horses? In the design of military programs of materials R&D, the time-phasing of military hardware systems is a key factor, and in the time-phasing of military hardware the future military posture and international relations of the U.S.
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In summary, the goals of military MSE require a closer surveillance of what is taking place in non-military MSE together with exchange of technical information from military sources to civilian users and from civilian sources to military users. A strengthened program of non-military MSE supported by the federal government, while not directly applicable to current military hardware, has a high probability of contributing to meet military requirements in the long-range future.
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economy, public policy in its regard was largely a by-product of policy directed toward navigable waters and especially the right to build dams. Even the Federal Water Power Act of 1920 (often incorrectly cited as the Federal Power Act)
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Ironically, when the ink was hardly dry on the 1964 Survey, a new and powerful element had begun to make its mark on the electric power industry, e.g., effects of generation, transmission, and consumption on the environment, embracing fuel extraction and transportation, generation, both convent~onal and nuclear, site location, effects of water and air emissions at higher than ambient temperatures on water and air, etc., etc. Thus the barely established goal of "abundant, reliable, and low-cost" power supply was amended to include "environmentally compatible," an addition that found legislative expression in the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 and the various amendments to the Water Quality and Clean Air Acts, some passed since, some now pending, and others still to come, including siting and probably more general land-use legislation.
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It is thus pertinent to inquire into the ways in which the industry is likely to achieve the multiheaded national objective in power supply in the context of a newly critical, vocal, and effective public opinion. Industry Changes and Legislation Five significant changes appear to be in store for the electric power industry, all connected in some way with legislation and each having some bearing on the materials community (See Table 4.12~.
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1970 Water Quality Improvement Act 1970 Amendments to Clean Air Act Bill No. Act HR11896 Water Pollution Bill HR11066 Power Plant Siting Bill S632, 5992 Land Use Planning Decision Date Case 1970 U.S.
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From page 52... ...
If anything, it seems to have hardened the look now being taken at the depth of fundamental knowledge concerning behavior of parts and materials even in improbable malfunction contingencies. Moreover, stringent court interpretations of AEC's responsibilities under the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 have launched the Commission, the utilities, and their consultants into searching inquiries concerning the implications of nuclear power for all conceivable impacts on the environment.
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Materials for Electric Power The materials employed by the electric power industry are extremely diverse. Major categories are shown in Table 4.14.
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Fuel desulphurization and stack-gas treatment Hydro and pumped storage Drag reduction Underground pneumatic storage Gas turbines . Combined gas-steam cycles .
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Specialized materials High-temperature materials portents Nuclear materials (fuel cladding, neutron absorbers, etc.) , especially for turbine com
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In addition, a number of materials developments undertaken by the aircraft industry, such as nickel-base superalloys, high-strength composites, structural ceramics, and oriented eutectics are already having impact on the electric power industry, or are likely to do so in the future. Critical Problems in Materials Use and Development The economic feasibility of many of the newer methods or power generation will be significantly if not critically determined by materials availability and performance These relationships are illustrated in Tables 4.15 and 4.16.
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Fuel cells Cost and life of electrode materials (most now contain precious metal catalysts) Cost of hydrogen as a preferred fuel for high efficiency Coal desulphurization Power from · e municipal waste / Several proposed methods all have materials disposal problems (including use of the ultimate sulphur)
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From page 58... ...
4-56 Table 4.16 Critical Energy-Related Materials Areas in Which Solutions Appear Possible, given Substantially Increased Materials Research Area Direction of Materials Effort Nuclear-fuel Zircalloy, stainless steels, development of new cladding cladding Ultrahigh- High-temperature ceramics, such as silicon nitride, temperature gas oriented eutectics turbines Large (above Limited by fabrication processes and perhaps physical 1200 MW) steam properties of rotor materials turbines Low-cost fuel Increased knowledge of hot corrosion materials, such as vanadium High temperature Handling of suitable heat-transfer materials, such as sodium nuclear reactors and helium; impurities and reactions with cladding and structural materials New generators High-strength composites for retaining rings; niobiumtitanium and similar superconductors for superconducting generators New transmission Alternative conductors, such as sodium; gaseous cables and insulators, such as SF6; materials performance in integrated cryogenic environments and refrigerant materials substations D.C.
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A v u co ~9 a)
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A more explicit formulation of national goals in respect to electric power, and the strengthening and coordination of federal policy mechanisms concerned with promotion and regulation of electric power are one of the likely results. Materials science and engineering is destined to play an important part in the search for improved or wholly new power supply systems that satisfactorily combine the requirements of abundance, low cost, reliability, and compatibility with environmental standards.
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4-59 Table 4.17 Relation of Energy to Value of Materials Industrv Electrometallurgical Products Alkalies and Chlorine Primary Aluminum Primary Copper Blast Furnaces and Steel Mills Steel Rolling and Finishing Cement, Hydraulic Energy Bill as % of Value 17.07 20.37 10.68 13.76 20.64 11.16 22.28
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From page 62... ...
These reactors are projected as likely to supply some 150,000 megawatts of electrical powers in 1980 or about 25% to 30% of the estimated demand for electricity in the USA at that time. By 1990 breeder reactors are likely to be in use, employing uranium-plutonium oxides in somewhat similar fashion, encased in somewhat smaller thin-wall tubing made of alloys perhaps resembling 316 stainless steel.
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From page 63... ...
High-Temperature Gas Turbines Gas turbines, originally developed for high-speed aircraft, have rarely been used for continuous basis power generation. Until recently, they have been adopted by large electric utility companies for peaking power and to fill the gap caused by delayed additions of nuclear, and in some cases, conventional steam~generating plants.
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From page 64... ...
Electrochemical devices potentially offer an opportunity to replace the internal combustion engine in automobiles and materials research in this direction has accelerated during the last decade.
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. Because of attempts to maximize specific power and specific energy, a large array of new materials are being investigated for application as electrodes and electrolytes in electrochemical devices.
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The new alloys which will support large magnetic fields are lossy in the presence of changing fields. Present developments using superconductors in rotating machinery utilize the superconductor in a situation which minimizes its exposure to changing magnetic fields.
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From page 67... ...
Estimates comparing the late 1950's to the late sixties show rail expenditures advancing by only 10, marine by 64, automotive by 77, and air by 166%. None of these magnitudes begins to measure the impact that the motor vehicle alone has on the American economy, in terms of goods and services associated with it directly or indirectly.
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From page 68... ...
The High Speed Ground Transportation Act of 1965 was aimed at improving 1ntercity rail service, following President Johnson's call in his 1965 Message for 100-mile-per-hour railroad passenger facilities between Boston and Washington. Urban transportation has been identified as a top priority area.
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Research program for improvement of UMT Office of Noise Abatement (later renamed Office of Environmental Quality) formed in FAA.
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At first glance this would not seem a fruitful area for MSE until we estimate some of the trade-offs, e.g., between time and fuel loss at intersections and better traffic control by means of solid-state devices and integrated circuits, which depend in a highly sophisticated way on materials; or between improved reliability through control-element redundancy and the weight and cost of the extra controls which would be required. We shall look briefly at the important role which materials substitution has played in the development of our transportation system.
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From page 71... ...
Materials Technology for Ground Transportation Materials technology, both for metals and plastics, is important in providing proper lightweight structures - for locomotives, for transit cars, for trucks and cars. It includes prediction of the fatigue and failure life of materials essential in view of the service characteristics and long life of transportation equipment.
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From page 72... ...
While we cite challenge areas using examples from mass transportation, it is also likely that solid-state power components based on silicon technology will increasingly find important use in other vehicle types. Materials Technology for Marine Transportation On the assumption that for the forseeable future, ship propulsion will continue to rely upon the most inexpensive residual oils, whether for the boilers of marine steam turbines, in marine diesel engines, or in gas turbines, the materials problems will involve hot corrosion in the presence of sulphur and some components of ash, such as sodium and vanadium, and also ash deposition.
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From page 73... ...
There is some skepticism about the applicability of such brittle materials in aircraft engines because of vulnerability to impact damage. Oriented Eutectics Metal eutectics, which may be viewed as composites formed naturally during properly controlled solidification of appropriate compositions, offer the possibility of significantly increasing the maximum material temperature in gas turbines.
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From page 74... ...
One could extend this discussion of material needs into other areas of air transportation where R&D are both active and necessary. Conclusion Since air transportation has presented the greatest technical challenges in this century, and since defense needs have given an enormous impetus to innovation and performance improvement, the amount of research and development has been higher relative to total effort than in other segments of transportation, with correspondingly greater results.
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o Girl o us En by o a)
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In that year, the Medicare and Medicaid amendments to the Social Security Act of 1965 committed the federal government to finance medical service to the aged and to the poor. Inflation of medical costs rapidly boosted the cost of the program from $5.5 billion dollars in 1967 to $14 billion in 1971.
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Regional Medical Program 1965 Health Professions Act 1966 Allied Health Act Theme Maternal and child health service First of NIH Hospital construction Health care survey Health research - construction Medical school - construction Medicare - Medicaid Heart disease, cancer, stroke reg.
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From page 78... ...
Instead of curtailing Medicare and Medicaid eligibility, attention is being directed toward options which would achieve cost control through improving the efficiency of health care delivery. Thus, the years since 1967 have witnessed an increasing public discussion through Presidential Commissions, Cabinet Committees, National Health Strategies, and State of the Union, Legislative, Budget, and Special Messages to Congress, all of which assert that the chaotic medical service industry must be improved and above all systematized.
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Health Maintenance Organizations (HMO) - Federal support of HMO's is growing, with HEW producing and distributing manuals and guidelines for the organization of large group practices, including hospitals, clinics, and laboratories, capable of delivering comprehensive health care and comprehensive medical record-keeping.
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From page 80... ...
Supplies and Materials The association between specific goals and materials is less obvious in the field of health care than, say, in transportation or power generation, and this becomes more so, the more emphasis shifts from disease-specific to general health care goals. To demonstrate that an association exists, however, Figure 4 6 attempts to illustrate the derivation of materials goals from health care goals, though it stops short of the final link that establishes a material.
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4-79 cn Cal .
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4-80 Table 4.20 Distribution of National Expenditures for Health Care For Health Care (in percent) Category Service Hospital Care 23 15 Construction 2.5 2.5 Drugs 0 10 Physician 19 0 Dentist 6 0 Nursing Home 4 0 Consumer Products Research Professional Medical Equipment Materials 2 3 o 1 o 3
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* Materials advances considered to be crucial in these areas 6 5 10 6-15 17 9 8 16 17 17 10-20 15
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;catheters, artificial organs, and heart-lung equipment, each with a 1970 market of $20-25 million. These four categories employ materials developed for purposes other than medicine, but innovative manipulation of silicone rubber, dacron, nylon, PVC, methacrylates, acrylics and hydrogels, a variety of vascular replacements, heart valves, oxygenators, etc., has met with varying degrees of success.
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From page 85... ...
On the other hand, as long as the delivery of medical services holds major attention, it will be difficult to establish sufficient priority for questions in the biomedical materials area. Nonetheless, there is much activity in some of these fields.
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From page 86... ...
4-84 Table 4.22 Materials Innovation in Health Care Material General Impact Health Care Impact Tungsten refractory metal x-ray targets Stainless Steel 316 corrosion resistant orthopedic Vitallium high strength Titanium metals prostheses Pyrolite reactor moderator nonthrombogenic surfaces (pyrolytic carbon) LaOBr:CsI-phosphor x-ray scintillator x-ray phosphor (SbNaKCs)
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From page 87... ...
Much of this work has been largely empirical. The great majority of the materials tried have not been successful because of inadequate mechanical properties and/or poor corrosion resistance.
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From page 88... ...
Also, relatively little basic work has been done on protein adsorption, cell adhesion, etc., i.e. the factors that initiate these adverse reactions.
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From page 89... ...
During the next two decades, there were many engineering and medical refinements leading to two major types of devices - the twin-coil and the flat-plate artificial kidneys. However, in all these years the artificial kidney was used primarily for patients with acute kidney failure in which restoration of renal function was anticipated.
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From page 90... ...
We can hardly afford the luxury of waiting for needed materials to fall out from future industrial processes slanted for commercial goods, but should seek these biomedical materials in their own right. To do this requires the development of much basic knowledge in the diffusional and surface properties of polymers.
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From page 91... ...
Recently, however, several well-publicized advances in surgical techniques have employed selected materials which had earlier been developed for nonmedical purposes. Although attempts are now being made to develop special biomedical materials, this effort is hampered by the failure of the biomedical-materials field to define quantitative goal specifications
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From page 92... ...
This is quite a departure from the tradition of supporting academic research in units of one faculty member, and will necessitate considerable adjustment both on the part of the funding agency and by the university administrative structure. ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY AND MATERIALS NEEDS Background Concern for environment has been a recent but rapidly-rising national goal.
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From page 93... ...
In addition to the Water Quality Act of 1965, pertinent legislation in the air-pollution field are the Clean Air Act of 1963, the Air Quality Act of 1967, and subsequent amendments. In the matter of solid waste, the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965 and its amendment by the Resource Recovery Act of 1969 fulfilled similar functions.
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From page 94... ...
102tC) of NEPA, has become a major vehicle for the evaluation of environmental policy and its application, and the courts are now broadly involved in helping to determine the boundaries of environmental concern and action.
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Strengthen capacity to cope with energy policy issues. WATER QUALITY Review and approve state water quality standards.
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Provide fines for violators of standards. WATER POLLUTION Extend federal-state water quality program to all navigable waters and their tributaries, groundwater, etc.
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WATER POLLUTION Repeats need to provide funds and financing measures and improve methods generally to assist in construction of treatment plants, and to extend program to all navigable waters, etc.
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From page 98... ...
Require use of best practicable technology in new industrial establishments. Repeats and amplifies need for more effective and rapid enforcement procedures, etc.
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From page 99... ...
Toxic wastes - control disposal on and under land. Sediments - control sediments from earth-moving activities that affect water quality.
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From page 100... ...
Even more important are the needs for processes that carry out desired transformations more economically or with reduced generation of residuals, or pollution-control materials that are less expensive; or disposable materials that can be accepted into the biosphere after passage through conventional social channels. Development of technologies that permit environmentally compatible materials processing at reasonable costs, and environmentally harmless structural materials that are compatible with minimal change in social habits will greatly aid implementation of proposed environmental quality standards, and may even be crucial to their attainment.
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From page 101... ...
J Powers, National Industrial Waste Assessment, 1967.
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From page 102... ...
Solid Wastes The U.S. mines or imports 10 million tons of sulfur each year while blowing 13 million tons out into the atmosphere as air pollution, and mines or imports 1700 million tons of combustible organic matter Cfossil fuels)
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From page 103... ...
Each poses a separate set of tasks for the materials scientist or engineer: solventless surface coatings that can be cured by means other than simple drying; stable, nontoxic, noninflammable heat-transfer and dielectric fluids that are nonpersistent in the environment; household and industrial cleaning agents that are effective in hard water and yet still nonconducive to waterway eutrophication; substitutes for mercury and cadmium in disposable products; and effective effluent-control techniques for those industrial operations that must still use such toxic heavy metals in their processes. Figure 4.7 illustrates a partial relevance tree for relating materials research to environmental goals.
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From page 104... ...
4-102 Figure 4.7 Partial Relevance Tree for Environmental Goals National Goal .
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From page 105... ...
He must now select or design a material not only for its immediate application and primary function, but for the management of all flows including final disposal of the used-up product. A major share of the improvement in environmental quality will be contributed by the MSE community.
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From page 106... ...
A different way of making bricks has been developed where virtually any solid inorganic can supply the aggregate which, combined with a small amount of Portland cement and a chemical accelerator, is molded under high pressure. Not only does this process make use of waste materials, but it provides a brick with properties which allow for new construction techniques with lower labor costs.
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From page 107... ...
Examples are the tagging of oil so that leakage can be traced back to its source, and the collection of pollutant samples in water by surface reactions. HOUSING GOALS AND MATERIALS NEEDS The Federal Role - A Broad Summary In the purchase of most homes, mortgage credit plays a crucial part, enabling the buyer to undertake the purchase and at the same time giving the mortgagor a role in determining the standards of value, durability, resale value, economic life, etc., of the home.
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From page 108... ...
Changing National Housing Goals Over the years, the emphasis in housing and urban-development legislation has changed from measures to provide mortgage credit for financing home ownership to the concern about the quality of the urban environment and the redevelopment problems of the nation's cities (see Table 4.25 for a detailed timetable of major events)
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From page 109... ...
Housing Act 1948 Housing Act 1949 Housing Act 1954 Housing Act 1955 Housing Act 1956 Housing Act 1961 National Housing Act 1966 Demonstration Cities Act 1968 HUD Act Housing - R&D Aspects Home Mortgage Insurance FHA . middle class .
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From page 110... ...
, National Housing Problem - production decline must be stopped; housing top priority Address, State of Union (RMN) - progress in housing noted Report, Second Annual - National Housing Goals - construction falling short, begin counting mobile homes Message, Legislative (RUN)
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From page 111... ...
1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 Message, Budget - housing has begun to lead economic expansion Message, Economic - high cost of construction, 40 percent increased starts due to mortgage funds Proclamation, Suspend Davis Bacon Act - let government construction wages float Establish, Construction Wage Control Committee - Tripartite to . negotiate wages Proclamation - Reinstate Davis Bacon Act .
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From page 112... ...
Though a Cabinet Committee on Construction was established in September 1969, and a Task Force on Low Income Housing October 1969, the President, in March 1970, strongly endorsed HUD's Project Breakthrough as an anti-inflation device in a statement entitled, "Combatting Construction Inflation and Meeting Future Construction Needs." Subsequent Presidential statements all stressed the role of construction as a stimulant to the economy generally.ll This concern went hand-in-hand with attempts to hold down construction labor cost, most recently the suspension, and later reinstatement of the Davis Bacon Act, and the establishment of a tripartite committee to control wages in the construction industry. Thus the social merits of the program have tended to be upstaged by the role of housing as component of the economy.
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From page 113... ...
4-111 Table 4.26 Housing Construction Needs, 1968-1978 (millions)
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From page 114... ...
In particular, Title III of the Housing Act of 1948, provided authority for housing research concerned with the "application of new technologies, materials and methods to housing." A specific aim of that Act was to aid the prefabricated home industry through loans to assure the industrial capacity for their construction, an aid that in 1951 was broadened to include mobile homes. Much later, when the near-crucial contribution of mobile homes to the achievement of the nation's housing goals was recognized, the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1969 expanded mortgage credit for the purchase of mobile homes and the development of mobile home parks, and a year later the Veterans Housing Act of 1970 gave, for the first time, authority not only for mobile home loans under the Veterans Administration, but for the setting of minimum construction standards for these homes, thus giving an indirect stimulus to technology.
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From page 115... ...
In the Second Annual Report on National Housing Goals, President Nixon took advantage of the housing windfall to include mobile homes within the definition of acceptable housing units. The large-scale appearance of mobile homes coinciding with the shortage of conventional housing starts undoubtedly contributed to the birth of Operation Breakthrough in 1970 as a research and technology program of HUD.
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From page 116... ...
Approaches Production Building Codes Technical Standardize Design for Noise Fire etc. Approaches Structures Off-site Insulation Endurance and Materials Assembly ~ Hardware Sandwich etc.
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From page 117... ...
Many contractors hire all of the plant and equipment required to build and, needing no fixed work place or plant, need only a small amount of capital to enter the contract construction business. It has been suggested that mass-production techniques will not be employed so long as governments continue to use the housing industry as a regulator of the national economy, since capital-intensive production methods cannot flourish in the climate of housing activities that fluctuate with business conditions.
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From page 118... ...
4-116 Table 4.27 Relative Shares of Development & Construction Costs in Different Types of Housing One-Family Multi-Storied Pre-fab Development Apartment One-family Home Development (including brokerage, legal, architectural, marketing, etc.) 31% 25% 34% Construction, Materials 37% 38% 58% On-site wages 18% 22% 4% Overhead/profit 14% 15% 4%
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From page 119... ...
16.5% 11.5% Interior and Appliances 17.5% 21% Foundation, Excavation, Septic 11.5% 12.5% Blacktop, Landscaping 2% 2.5% 69% 64% OF TOTAL COST
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From page 120... ...
The monthly costs are also about the same as a conventional home, due largely to the shorter financing period and to the lot-rental charges. Directions in Housing Technology In spite of all these obstacles, there is a fair chance that to achieve the national housing goals and benefit from the economies of mass construction, the next decade may witness the emergence of industrialized housing.
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From page 121... ...
4-119 Table 4.29 Past Materials Innovations in Housing Technology Material plywood gypsum board concrete -- polyester concrete concrete block precast glass fiberglass aluminum polymers structural sandwiches steel alloys manufactured board composites (gypsum, fiberglass, paper) Housing Awl on .
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From page 122... ...
For mobile homes, materials can be chosen to meet specified functions rather than to follow long traditions. Even so, there has not been a spectacular emergence of new families of materials.
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From page 123... ...
Aluminum and plastic clapboards are a case in point; so are woodgrained cement-asbestos shingles. Materials Development Building materials are customarily developed by materials manufacturers serving the building industry and not by the construction branch of the industry as such.
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From page 124... ...
It can be cast in a mold, in much the same way as the Portland cement concrete, but it has the
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From page 125... ...
However, it is more expensive per unit volume than the traditional concrete. In a hot fire, there will be some smoke evolution and, obviously, it does not have the long-time history of Portland cement concrete.
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From page 126... ...
This is an example of successful MSE that can occur when performance is set forth rather than prescriptive specifications. As building codes gradually evolve in the direction of performance rather than prescriptive codes, as enforcement agencies become sophisticated enough to handle such codes, and as designers become accustomed to thinking in terms of performance, it may be expected that composite uses of materials, as exemplified by the building sandwiches, will increase.
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From page 127... ...
Here is another field where the transition should be made from empiricism and experience to a groundwork of scientific understanding, closely coupled with engineering application. NOTE ON NEEDS IN CONSUMER GOODS, PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT, AND AUTOMATION In addition to the preceding studies of the relations between MSE and various national goals, some less complete studies were made of the opportunities for materials R&D relating to construer goods and production equipment.
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From page 128... ...
Progress in this field clearly will require the most sophisticated knowledge of materials and of spectroscopy in its broadest sense. The signals generated by the primary sensing device usually must be processed, analyzed, and correlated by a computer or, increasingly, a minicomputer, itself a product of modern MSE in its integrated circuits and memory devices.
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From page 129... ...
balance of trade. Exploration The sensing, information-processing, and transmitting functions of orbiting earth-resources satellites and lunar rovers were made possible by progress in development of electronic and structural materials.
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From page 130... ...
The utility of renewable resources in general might be extended by a variety of methods: better chemical means of recovering basic materials; control of physical properties by chemical or radiation treatment; genetic modification during growth; new ways to make composite materials of natural products; and improved methods of protecting and preserving structural materials made of natural products. Resource Substitution The substitution of plentiful for less-plentiful resources is likely to become an especially important task for MSE in the future.
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From page 131... ...
Continuous on-line assembly with minimum human intervention, a continuing objective for production lines, is virtually achieved in the manufacture of integrated circuits, where relatively few of the 200 or more processing steps are controlled actively by operators. The approach should be extended to other areas of processing and manufacturing.
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From page 132... ...
The transistor started the solid-state electronics industry, which has led to technologies like computers, missile-control systems, and a broad range of industrial, medical, and leisure products. Challenging problems for functional substitution include: developing materials and techniques for new methods of generating and storing electrical energy; and finding functional substitutes and biological materials to replace human organs.
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From page 133... ...
It is not clear that these problems can be solved without sacrificing performance. We must learn not only to recycle materials more efficiently; we must develop secondary and tertiary outlets for recycled materials whose properties no longer meet the requirements of the primary functions.
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From page 134... ...
Environmental Quality Less-polluting materials processes; pollution standards; recyclability; reduced safety and health hazards; extraction processes; catalysts; secondary uses for discarded materials; sorting processes; nondestructive testing; noise reduction. Health Services Implant materials; membranes; biocompatibility; medical sensors; material degradation.
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From page 135... ...
Production Equipment Friction and wear; corrosion; sensors; automation Transportation Equipment . oncrete; weatherability; Corrosion; pollution control; high strength-to-weight ratios; highstrength, high temperature materials; impact resistance; catalysts; adhesives; superconductors, lubricants.
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Key Terms
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