Materials and Man's Needs Materials Science and Engineering -- Volume IV, Aspects of Materials Technology Abroad (1975) / Chapter Skim
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Research and Development
Research and Development
Pages 69-143
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From page 69... ...
For example, senior scientists at research institutes may take professorships at teaching institutes for a certain period. Their experience and basic approach is reflected in the instruction at the teaching institute and tends to strengthen the treatment of the fundamental background of the subject.
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8-71 Table 8.11 National Expenditures on Research and Development as Percentage o f GNP Country 1963-1964 1971 Direction in 1971 , Canada 1.1 France 1. 6 1.8 Decreasing Germany 1.
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From page 72... ...
Outside the industrial sectors, the governmental sectors dominated in Canada, France, and the U.K., while universities and nonprofit institutions dominated in Japan, the U.S., and heavily in Germany. This last reflects the importance of the Max Planck Institutes.
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8-73 Table 8.12 Number of Qualified Scientists and Engineers on Research and Development Per 10,000 of Population Country 1963-1964 1971 Direction in 1971 Canada 7 France 7 12 Steady Germany 6 15 Increasing Japan 12 25 Increasing U.K.
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8-75 1 _' o Cal o C)
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8-76 Table 8.15 Gross National Expenditures on Research and Development (1963-64) Defense, Space, and Nuclear Sectors All Other Sectors % of Total % of Total % of GNP Canada 26.2 73.8 0.8 France 43.4 56.6 1.1 Germany 15.9 84.1 1.2 Japan 0 100.0 1.4 U.K.
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From page 77... ...
8-77 Fl GURE 8.2 GOVERNMENT FUNDS FOR REsEaRcH AND DEVELOPMENT OTHER THAN SPACE, NUCLEAR, aND DEFENSE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ~ in rnit! ions of U
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From page 78... ...
8-78 ~ o o o o o o ¢ ~ e e e · E~ O O O O O O O O O O O O O EN ~ ~ ~ ~1 ~1 ~1 _ - _ ¢ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ O ~ 00 ~ O · E~ ~ ~ ~ En ·rl Sly En girl VO a)
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From page 79... ...
Table 8.23 gives data on the percentages of highly qualified manpower in different industrial sectors and in the total labor force. Thase exhibit a slightly heavier indulgence in professional and technical people in most U.S.
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From page 80... ...
: . Textiles 1.0 2.2 2.3 Wood, cork, and furniture 0.2 - 0.1 0.3 0.1 Paper 6.8 0.1 1.1 0.3 0.6 Petroleum extraction and refining Drugs Chemicals Rubber products Stone, clay and glass Ferrous metals Nonferrous metals Fabricated metals products Machinery, excluding electrical Instruments Other electrical machinery and apparatus Aircraft and missiles 5.8 4.2 2.6 3.6 10.0 1.2 1.0 1.7 5.0 2.4 3.9 2.7 5 ~ n 21.9 26.2 15.7 22.5 2.0 32.0 1.2 1.7 1.7 0.9 1.8 0.9 4.8 20.5 1.4 2.
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From page 81... ...
U.S. All manufacturing industries 78.5 58.5 94.4 98.6 58.1 43.6 Selected manufacturing industries: Textiles Wood, cork, and furniture 82.4 99.2 100.0 100.0 Paper 84.9 100.0 98.9 100.0 100.0 Petroleum extraction and refining 98.4 74.0 87.9 90.8 92.0 Drugs 72.1 91.5 100.0 95.3 Chemicals 95.5 82.3 99.8 99.1 95.6 79.1 Rubber products 83.5 95.7 96.7 99.6 92.2 82.7 Stone, clay, and glass 47.7 93.8 96.2 98.2 89.4 92.5 Ferrous metals 98.7 72.7 99.6 98.5 98.2 Nonferrous metals 99.4 67.1 96.0 99.3 81.8 93.3 Fabricated metals products 78.9 98.8 97.4 88.2 Machinery, excluding electrical 86.9 82.4 99.1 81.5 74.9 Instruments 59.4 70.9 70.4 56.9 Other electrical machinery and apparatus Aircraft and missiles 75.3 57.2 95.6 49.3 15.3 97.0 55.0 38.2 9.9 9.6
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From page 82... ...
U.S. All manufacturing industries 16.2 31.5 Selected manufacturing industries: Textiles Wood, cork, and furniture 0.8 4.0 0.4 36.3 56.4 Paper 0.5 0.3 Petroleum extraction and refining Drugs Chemicals Rubber products 0.4 2.4 2.4 5.1 0.8 2.2 1.9 0.5 8.0 4.7 0.1 0.4 20.9 17.3 Stone, clay, and glass 4.8 6.2 3.8 1.5 0.5 7.5 Ferrous metals 3.9 0.6 0.5 1.8 Nonferrous metals Fabricated metals products 20.]
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From page 83... ...
. rerlnlng Drugs Chemicals Rubber products Stone, clay, and glass Ferrous metals Nonferrous metals Fabricated metals products Machinery, excluding electrical Instruments Other electrical machinery and apparatus Aircraft and missiles Motor vehicles and parts Shipbuilding Other transport equipment Other manufacturing 1963 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 Canada France Germany Japan U.K.
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From page 84... ...
= 100) Expenditure Technical Manpower Miscellaneous Manufacturing 45.2 91.5 Applied Products 56.
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8-85 Cal 2 a' 1 So U' Is a)
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From page 86... ...
4% 29. 8% 5.3% 2.0% 3.2% 2.3% 2.6% 6.3% In manufacturing 6.7% 2.5% 2.2% 4.0% 3.6% 5.1% In metal products 6.
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From page 87... ...
In addition, the government will continue to promote industrial R&D through tax measures and other incentives, and will guide industrial research efforts through technology assessment. Promotion of Basic Science Japan recognizes that basic research is an important element of science policy, and that history shows such research leads to important technological breakthroughs even though these cannot be properly foreseen at the time.
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From page 89... ...
Super high-speed railways for heavy-load transportation. Large scale civil engineering, bridges and tunnels.
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There seems to be little collaboration across disciplinary lines or, for example, interchange of personnel between institutes, or active cooperation between research institutes. It is felt necessary to establish means for smooth contacts among researchers and for exchange of information.
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From page 91... ...
Laser technology will revolutionize the information system, new methods of rapid transportation will be developed, the technology of desalination will revolutionize water utilization, and progress in housing construction and urban technologies will alter the environment. "To develop these technological innovations and adapt them to the conditions of ~ ~It, cecnnologlcal development must be pursued on a selective basis.
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From page 94... ...
Recent Trends in Japanese Technology Emphasis 8 "The economy is being internationalized and thinking is in terms of global markets, but internally there are increasing social needs, environmental problems, and labor shortages. New directions for technical innovation are needed.
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melamine, etc. Transistor radio, video tape recorder, transistor TV, washing machine ("Jet Stream" type)
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In 1970, governmental expenditures for pollution control research amounted to $3.91 M (including air pollution, water pollution, noise and vibration, odors, etc.)
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From page 97... ...
8-97 Table 8.27 Merits and Demerits of New Processes or Techniques in Japan Technique or Process Mercury electrolysis process for making caustic soda Shell mold process for casting Iron & steel production technology Thermal power production technology Aluminum electrolytic refining technique Paper & pulp making technique Merits Better than diaphragm electrolysis methods as products made by the process higher in quality and concentration and lower in price Better than conventional methods as products made by the process higher in quality and quantity Increased productivity due to plant expansion and automatic control of production Lower cost of power due to plant expansion and automatic control Lower power consumption per ton of product due to plant expansion Lower cost and larger output due to plant expansion and speedier operation Petrochemical Inexpensive and abundant technology supplies of chemical products Demerits Mercury responsible for water pollution Offensive odors due to combustion of phenol resin Sulfur oxide & dust responsible for air pollution Sulfur oxide & dust responsible for air pollution Fluoride responsible for air pollution Plant effluent causes water pollution; ground subsidence, offensive odor Sulfur oxide causes pollution of air; water pollution
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From page 98... ...
8-98 Table 8.28 Positive and Negative Effects of Main Products in Japan High-octane Greater anti-knock properties and Air pollution by more gasoline less damage to vehicle than lead compound emission regular gasoline Synthetic resin Better appearance, lightness, Harmful gas and black as building prefabrication smoke when catching material fire Electronic Greater capacity for processing Inflammation of the computer information tendon sheath suffered by keypunchers Skyscrapers Land utilization Infringement of the right of light Jet aircraft Higher speed and increased Noise; air pollution transport capacity Pesticides Increased crop output, extermina- Contamination of food tion of harmful insects and soil Antibiotics Effective treatment of diseases Anaphylaxis, alter nation of bacteria Synthetic resin Lightness, corrosion resistance, Environmental pollution products workability by solid waste dumping Automobile Greater convenience, saving of Air pollution (carbon time monoxide, hydrocarbon, nitrogen oxides, lead compound, particulates) ; traffic accidents; noise, vibration; solid waste Durables Greater conveniences comfort Environmental pollu tion by dumping of solid waste
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From page 99... ...
The utilization of oil pressure, instead of hammer power, in driving iron piles has resulted in reducing noise and vibration shock. While "hard-type" synthetic detergent is resistant to decomposition by microorganisms, causing water pollution, "soft-type" detergent, made of normal paraffin, is easily decomposed by microorganisms.
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From page 100... ...
, manufacturing industries accounted for 91% of the total, followed by transport, communication, and public utilities industries (6%) , and construction industries (3%)
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8-101 Table 8.30 Private Industry's Expenditures for Development of Pollution Control Technology in Japan (1969)
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From page 102... ...
Remodeling engine; exhaust manifold; air jet method; exhaust manifold reactor; waste gas recycling; non-leaded gasoline (2) Water Pollution Dust: Dust collector (gravity method, inertia method, centrifugal method, cleansing method, filtration method, electrical method)
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From page 103... ...
Chemical - wet electrode, ozone oxidation, acid alkali cleansing, neutralizing, absorbing, chlorine, soil filter, etc. Biological soil absorption.
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8-104 Table 8.31 (Continued) Change in Mechanism or Principle Reform in Mechanism .
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From page 105... ...
8-105 Table 8.32 Research and Development Budgets by Ministry in Japan (1971-72) Agency Unit one million yen 1971 1972 Ministry of Education 164,220 196,436 Science & Technology - 70~790 88~949 MITI 21,491 29,155 Ministry of Agriculture & Forestry Defense Agency MOH Ministry of Construction MOT Agency for Environment Ministry of Telecommunication Economic Planning Agency MOL Public Security Investigation Agency 18~182 12, 294 6,274 3.839 3,134 384 1, 472 634 399 334 21,477 14,072 8,142 4,500 3,411 2,911 1,659 1,008 455 338 Science Council of Japan 366 356 MOJ 280 305 MOFA 192 287 Ministry of Home Affairs Ministry of Finance Diet Hokkaido Development Agency 158 150 106 89 180 161 111 ~5
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8-106 ~ o o Marl SO CO ·,1 0 ~ U CON as sat CO o Lou ~ z a)
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From page 108... ...
% of 65 70 71 total All industries covered 2,524 8,233 8,950 100.00 Major Industrial Categories: Agriculture, forestry, & fisheries Mining Construction Manufacturing communication, Transport, & public utilities Individual Industries: .. Food Textile Mill Products Chemical Products - 20 9 0.1 31 60 65 0.7 43 153 263 2.9 2,320 7,609 8,107 90.6 126 391 506 5.7 90 214 274 3.1 80 143 627 1,751 175 2.0 1,937 21.6 Industrial Chemicals 349 973 1,045 11.7 Drugs & Medicines Iron & Steel Machinery, except electrical Electrical Machinery Transportation equipment Motor Vehicles Other Transportation Equipment 146 148 178 724 515 2,278 290 949 243 789 454 557 6.2 366 409 4.6 752 8.4 2,292 25.6 1,130 12.6 927 10.4 47 164 202 2.3 |
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From page 109... ...
Table 8.38 shows how particular industries have proportioned their expenditures among the same three categories of R&D activities. With respect to basic research, most of the chemical products manufacturing industries, such as drugs and medicines, rubber products, oils and paints, industrial chemicals, and food products industries spent more than the average of 9.1%.
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From page 110... ...
Japan U.S. All industries covered 0.95 1.16 1.27 Agriculture, forestry & fisheries Mining Construction Manufacturing Food products Textile mill products Pulp and paper products Chemical products Industrial chemicals Oil and paints Drugs and medicines Other chemicals Petroleum and coal products Iron and steel Machinery, except electric Electrical machinery Electrical machinery equipment and supplies Communication and electronic equipment Transportation equipment Motor vehicles Other transportation equipment Precision machinery Transport, communication & public utility 0.11 0.48 0.20 1.11 0.40 0.67 0.67 1.76 1.54 1.36 3.00 1.83 0.21 0.71 1.04 2.29 2.10 2.85 2.44 1.30 1.60 0.66 1.58 0.40 0.50 0.25 0.53 0.25 1.36 2.63 0.46 0.20 0.59 0.29 0.55 0.74 2.10 3.71 1.77 1.96 3.39 2.44 0.25 0.64 1.35 2.96 3.06 8.70 1.54 2.73 1.68 1.09 2.03 0.19 0.75 0.33 1.48 0.48 0.65 0.65 2.30 1.89 2.08 6.50 3.90 2.69 2.29 0.30 0.34 0.77 3.08 1.64 8.51 3.26 2.85 2.47 0.20 0.26 0.51 3.54 1.76 0.31 3.08 8.17 3.64 1.67 2.23 1.80 1.21 5.71 2.35 6.39 0.62
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From page 111... ...
8-111 TabIe 8.37 Industrial Research and Development Expenditures by Three Areas in Japan Research Areas Year basic Applied Drivels gent 1965 1969 1970 1971 an.
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From page 112... ...
8-112 Table 8.38 Allocation of Industrial Research and Development Expenditures by Industry and by Three Research Areas in Japan (1971) Research Areas Industry Basic Applied Development All industries covered 9.1% 25.9% 65.0% Agriculture, forestry & fisheries 1.9% 28.9% 69.2% Mining 5.7% 18.8% 75.4% Construction 6.~% 16.1% 77.3% Manufacturing 9.4% 26.5% 64.1% Food products 13.3% 30.3% 56.3% Textile mill products 7.0% 28.9% 6402% Chemical products 16.0% 30.4% 53.6% Industrial chemicals 10.0% 31.3% 58.7% Oils and paints 13.1% 36.0% 50.9% Drugs and medicines 29.4% 24.9% 45.7% Petroleum and coal products 6.9% 31.5% 61.6% Rubber products 13.9% 25.6% 60.5% Iron and Steel 8.1% 24.7% 67.2% Machinery, except electric 5.8% 21.0% 73.2% Electric machinery 6.3% 26.5% 67.17 Transportation equipment 8.1% 23.3% 68.6% Transport, communication & public 5.6% 21.4% 73.0% utility i
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From page 113... ...
"When the project is big, it may be more effective to have the top executives directly giving the instructions. Especially when the tendency of the future industries required skill and technique of combining many heterogeneous fields, it may be more necessary, for the top executives, to start the initial efforts to combine these different activities.
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From page 114... ...
"It is very risky for a company to place its future entirely in the hands of a basic research, when technical innovation and product revolution are moving forward very rapidly today. I am of the opinion that the seed should be picked up from anywhere, in the course of basic research, development, manufacturing, marketing, sales, servicing, or it can also be generated by the consumers.
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From page 115... ...
Academy, the directors of its major research institutes in fact have some latitude to influence the lines of research of their institutes.
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From page 116... ...
But this favorable position of the U.S.S.R. Academy has meant that the most talented students and the best scientists have irresistibly been drawn towards it and to its outstanding research institutes.
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From page 117... ...
Both of these compare with the Max Planck Institute in Stuttgart in size and scope of activity, with Kiev dividing its attention about equally between metals physics and physical metallurgy, and Sverdlovsk emphasizing metals physics rather more. There is a large institute for ferrous metallurgy in Moscow under the Ministry of Industry.
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From page 118... ...
Physics Moscow State University Institute of Inorganic Chemistry Institute of Semiconductor Physics Institute of Metal Physics Institute of Metallurgy Georgian Polytechnic Institute Institute for Vise and Hand Tool Production Moscow Moscow Moscow Moscow Moscow Moscow Moscow Moscow Novosibirsk Novosibirsk Sverdlovsk Tbilisi Tbilisi Tbilisi Solid-State Physics Soviet science in general, and solid-state physics in particular, is very vigorous, perhaps remarkably so when one considers the relatively poor physical facilities in many physics laboratories. Modern computers, microcircuits, even lasers are conspicuous by their absence.
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From page 119... ...
Group II - Some other important institutes are: Moscow State University Institute of Semiconductors, Leningrad Institute of Semiconductors, Kiev Physical Engineering Institute of Low Temperatures, Kharkov Institute of Radio Physics and Electronics, Kharkov Institute of Radioengineering and Electronics, Moscow Institute of Physics of Semiconductors, Novosibirsk Institute of Metal Physics, Sverdlovsk The vast output of solid-state research in the U.S.S.R. can be roughly separated into three categories: (a)
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From page 120... ...
This research anticsystematic research in a field which was time, we may cite the exploratory work on at Leningrad (Regel, Goryunova, Kolomiets _ mated by approximately ten years the recent upsurge of interest in the properties of amorphous materials which has occurred in the West. (It may be noted that switching devices in amorphous semiconductors have not caught on in the U.S.S.R.
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From page 121... ...
In the area of applied and industrial research, a strong coordinating and sponsoring role is played by the Federal Ministry fur Bildung und Wissenschaft. There is good cooperation between the Ministry and other agencies, especially the DFG, to bring about contacts and joint efforts between industry and universities.
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From page 122... ...
The majority of the 53 Max Planck Institutes are devoted to fundamental research, particularly in the natural sciences, though some institutes do embrace applied research as well. Research in the institutes is complementary to that at the universities in many ways, and the organization can be compared with the Laboratories operated by the Research Councils in Great Britain, the C.N.R.S.
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From page 123... ...
In fact, the number of research contracts being accepted dropped from 1969 to 1970 by 23.7% in the General Support Program, and by 27% in the Special Support Program. The DFG has endeavoured to bring some research groups together into joint research contracts but has been rather disappointed by results except, to some extent, in the nuclear and aerospace fields - the success in the latter accounts for the reversal of the funding trend in the above table.
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From page 124... ...
Other Large Research Facilities Special Research Fields 114.4 66.7 1.8 4.8 6.5 4.6 4.0 28.6 16.8 64.5 312.6 B Support of Natural Sciences and Engineering (Totals in MM)
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From page 125... ...
of Granted Program Applications in 1970 Started in 1970 MM Solid-State Research 1963 113 3.74 1964 52 1.93 Electron Optics 1967 15 1.43 Theoretical Chemistry 1965 45 0.72 High Temperature and Pressures 1968 20 1.52 Natural Macromolecules 1967 25 1.19 Engineering Semiconductor Electronics 1968 32 1.82 High Voltage DC Transmission 1959 5 3.3 Flow of Real Gases 1965 30 0.95 Noise Generation and Transmission 1968 15 0.59 Cavitation 1965 28 1.06 Surfaces and Coating Techniques 1966 20 0.79 Boiling Processes 1967 22 0.11 Welding 1967 21 1.11 Materials 1962 29 1.41 Mechanical Properties of Materials 1969 10 0.33 Composites 1969 18 1.2 detail. Several of the above research areas are worth describing here in further
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From page 126... ...
At the same time, within this specia1-emphasis program, the number of applications for research contracts rose from 28 in 1964 to 127 in 1969 although efforts were made to concentrate the contracts into the fields of collective phenomena, electronic structure, and electron-phonon interactions. Atomic and Molecular Collision Processes Investigations have been supported in: Elastic and inelastic collision between neutral atoms and molecules and electrons.
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From page 127... ...
Main objective is research on the fundamentals of techniques for protection against chemical attack and mechanical destruction. Boiling Processes Bubble boiling, film boiling, boiling with free convection, boiling with forced convection, local boiling, and boiling of saturated solutions are subjects of investigation supported by this program.
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From page 128... ...
Composites Research is supported on production and behavior of composites; includes particle, fiber, and layer composites. Metallurgical Research in German Industry Generally, German industry looks for graduates broadly trained in basic knowledge and with evidence of ability and interest in development and manufacturing work.
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From page 129... ...
These research associations are autonomous bodies and the determination of their programs is a matter for the individual associations, but the government can give special support for work in particular areas. Many associations deal with engineering materials; others serve the textile industries (see later)
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From page 130... ...
In recent years the Science Research Council has identified special areas which merited support and has encouraged certain universities to develop special expertise in these areas. Examples in the materials field include polymer science, high-temperature technology, ion implantation, and composite materials.
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From page 131... ...
The fields of research supported by the SRC include mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, and all branches of engineering. The SRC manages national and international facilities which cover, particularly, nuclear physics, astronomy, radio, and space research.
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From page 132... ...
Department of the Environment Ministry of Agriculture and Scottish Department of Agriculture Health Overseas Development Administration Home Office Miscellaneous * Science Research Council Medical Research Council Agricultural Research Council Natural Environment Research Council Social Science Research Council 259.3 205.0 109.
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From page 133... ...
Over the period of 1965-1970, financial stringency has forced the SRC to develop steadily its policy of selectivity and concentration. Emphasis has also shifted in the direction of supporting more graduate studies rather than research studentships, and overall to favor awards in applied science and those having industrial potentiality rather than awards in pure science.
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From page 134... ...
(i) Because the implementation of these policies means that SRC will inevitably exercise more influence over university research, it is essential that SRC should make sure that its policy is fully known and understood throughout the university sector, and that adequate opportunities are provided for the policy to be discussed with the University Grants Committee, with the other Research Councils as appropriate, and with universities; and for provisional proposals in particular topics to be examined and discussed before decisions are taken.
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From page 135... ...
However, there are signs that, on the average, those students going into applied science graduate work have lower quality first degrees than those going on into pure science - "All eligible candidates for Advanced Course Studentships with first and upper seconds were successful. In applied science all eligible candidates with lower seconds received awards." And for the research studentships, Hall eligible candidates with first class honors were successful.
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From page 136... ...
The Polymer Science Committee, relatively new, is concerning itself initially with synthesis, thermal stability and degradation, processing and physical/mechanical properties. Science Board: - The Science Board, with its various committees, is responsible for pure and applied research and graduate training in biology, chemistry, enzyme chemistry and technology, mathematics, and physics (other than astronomy, nuclear physics, radio and space research)
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From page 137... ...
There is considerable activity in solid-state physics which embraces the Technical University, the Orietal Institute of Arhus University, and the Ris Research Center of the Danish A.E.C. Industry sponsors some research institutes, for example, in building materials, and much in-house R&D in the chemical and electrical industries.
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From page 139... ...
o ~ ~ ~ Go co Cal ~ ~ o Cal Cal ~ co ~ Go Cal ~ o I· ~ GO ~ ~ ~ lo)
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From page 140... ...
8-140 do U)
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From page 141... ...
but at Trondheim there is a Professional Coordinating Council for constructional materials research. There are research institutes to support industry and to cover specific technological fields, e.g., building research' pulp and paper research wood working and wood technology, atomic energy, materials testing, etc.
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From page 142... ...
Certain special research institutes, though oriented towards particular industries, are not industriallysponsored and are therefore rather independent. Materials research, principally ferrous, is conducted mainly at KTH, the Institute for Metal Research, and the Swedish Atomic Energy Company.
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From page 143... ...
and the Glass Research Institute (Vaxjo) - both trade research institutes.
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