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2 Exposure Assessment
Pages 17-51

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From page 17... ... • What are the nature and magnitude of and variation in natural and anthropogenic background exposure via diet, drinking water, soil contact, and inhalation? • What are the nature and magnitude of and variation in occupational exposure to beryllium, and how have changes in workplace practices changed beryllium exposure? Read the entire page →
From page 18... ... We first describe beryllium sources and uses and then briefly review beryllium toxicokinetics. Exposure data on naturally occurring, background, and occupational exposure to beryllium are described next, and later sections examine sampling and analytic methods and exposure metrics for air and surface contamination and skin exposure. Read the entire page →
From page 19... ... c Data in Toxic Release Inventory are maximum amounts released by each industry. Listing is incomplete because not all types of facilities are included in the estimates. Read the entire page →
From page 20... ... a Total On Total Total Site and Number Underground On-Site Off-Site Off-Site Stateb Facilities Airc Water Injection Land Released Releasee Release CA 3 0 No data No data No data 0 No data 0 IN 3 0 No data No data 2,650 2,650 2,415 5,065 LA 1 2 No data No data No data 2 No data 2 MO 1 0 No data No data 10 10 0 10 NC 1 38 No data No data No data 38 No data 38 OH 6 721 27 No data 50,352 51,280 9,870 61,150 OK 2 No data 23 No data 5 28 6,830 6,858 PA 1 1 7 No data No data 8 966 974 SC 1 7 No data No data 74 81 No data 81 TN 1 No data No data No data No data No data No data No data UT 1 0 No data No data 0 0 No data 0 WI 1 No data No data No data No data No data No data No data Total 22 769 57 0 53,271 54,097 20,081 74,178 a Data in Toxic Release Inventory (TRI99 2002) are maximum amounts released by each facility. Read the entire page →
From page 21... ... Reported Amounts Released (lb/year) a Total On- Total Off- Total On-Site Number Underground Site Site and Off-Site b State Facilities Airc Water Injection Land Released Releasee Release AL 6 419 250 No data 62,691 63,360 326 63,686 AR 2 197 48 No data 9,130 9,375 1 9,376 AZ 4 50 No No data 16,421 16,471 1,630 18,101 data FL 3 390 250 No data 5,745 6,385 5 6,390 GA 5 764 0 No data 76,925 77,689 No data 77,689 IL 1 79 850 No data 8,500 9,429 No data 9,429 IN 4 340 63 No data 40,019 40,422 3,808 44,230 KY 5 351 1,221 No data 21,730 29,302 No data 29,302 MD 1 No No No data No data No data No data No data data data MI 2 313 17 No data 15,000 15,330 250 15,580 MO 3 10 No No data No data 10 555 565 data MS 1 2 20 4,100 19 4,141 0 4,141 MT 1 250 No No data 6,900 7,150 750 7,900 data NC 4 817 403 No data 51,010 52,230 260 52,490 NM 4 112 77 No data 47,724 47,913 39,000 86,913 NY 1 20 0 No data 400 420 No data 420 OH 4 450 30 No data 25,846 26,326 11,422 37,748 PA 4 1,580 16 No data 8,700 10,296 6,411 16,707 TN 2 256 250 No data 14,100 14,606 640 15,246 TX 1 19 0 No data 31,400 31,419 No data 31,419 UT 4 366 No No data 299,952 300,318 5 300,323 data WI 1 10 5 No data No data 15 255 270 WV 9 861 10 No data 70,765 71,636 6,800 78,436 WY 1 160 No No data 3,970 4,130 No data 4,130 data Total 73 7,816 3,510 4,100 822,947 838,373 72,118 910,491 a Data in Toxic Release Inventory (TRI99 2002) Read the entire page →
From page 22... ... The latter estimate was judged by Henneberger et al. to be a better representation of the potentially exposed population, given reports on development of CBD in minimally exposed workers at beryllium facilities. Read the entire page →
From page 23... ... TOXICOKINETICS As is true of most metal compounds, the pulmonary deposition and disposition of inhaled beryllium compounds vary with solubility and particle size. Read the entire page →
From page 24... ... Results of surface samples above the laboratory reporting limit for beryllium ranged from 0.034 to 1,160 µg per sample. While these data would suggest that beryllium exposures in the Air Force are generally low, it is important to note that most samples were collected as part of a general dust and metals sampling effort that did not specifically target beryllium. Read the entire page →
From page 25... ... • Beryllium exposure in a given facility is highly variable in terms of time-weighted averages and short-term exposure concentrations. Stefaniak et al. Read the entire page →
From page 26... ... 2007 Beryllium-metal machining Personal Machining plant 1980-1995 Mean, 1.63 µg/m3 Median, 0.33 µg/m3 11% of samples, >2 µg/m3 1996-1999 Mean, 0.45 µg/m3 Median, 0.16 µg/m3 1.8% of samples, >2 µg/m3 2000-2005 Mean, 0.11 µg/m3 Median, 0.09 µg/m3 No samples, >2 µg/m3 Nonmachining 1980-1995 Mean, 1.01 µg/m3 Median, 0.12 µg/m3 14% of samples, >2 µg/m3 1996-1999 Mean, 0.22 µg/m3 Median, 0.08 µg/m3 No samples, >2 µg/m3 2000-2005 Mean, 0.08 µg/m3 Read the entire page →
From page 27... ... Median, 0.06 µg/m3 No samples, >2 µg/m3 Area Processing 1980-1995 Mean, 0.20 µg/m3 Median, 0.20 µg/m3 11% of samples, >2 µg/m3 1996-1999 Mean, 0.06 µg/m3 Median, 0.06 µg/m3 No samples, >2 µg/m3 2000-2005 Mean, 0.08 µg/m3 Median, 0.04 µg/m3 No samples, >2 µg/m3 Nonprocessing 1980-1995 Mean, 0.04 µg/m3 Median, 0.05 µg/m3 No samples, >2 µg/m3 1996-1999 Mean, 0.04 µg/m3 Median, 0.04 µg/m3 No samples, >2 µg/m3 2000-2005 Mean, 0.04 µg/m3 Median, 0.04 µg/m3 No samples, >2 µg/m3 (Continued) Read the entire page →
From page 28... ... 2007 Beryllium oxide ceramics Personal Production facility 1994-1999 Range, <0.02-62.4 µg/m3 Median, 0.20 µg/m3 GM, 0.21 µg/m3 2% of samples, >2 µg/m3 55% of samples, >0.2 µg/m3 2000-2003 Range, <0.02-53.3 µg/m3 Median, 0.18 µg/m3 GM, 0.18 µg/m3 4% of samples, >2 µg/m3 50% of samples, >0.2 µg/m3 Production support 1994-1999 Range, <0.02-0.80 µg/m3 Read the entire page →
From page 29... ... Median, 0.10 µg/m3 GM, 0.11 µg/m3 <1% of samples, >2 µg/m3 29% of samples, >0.2 µg/m3 2000-2003 Range, <0.02-7.70 µg/m3 Median, 0.04 µg/m3 GM, 0.04 µg/m3 <1% of samples, >2 µg/m3 12% of samples, >0.2 µg/m3 Administration 1994-1999 Range, <0.20 µg/m3 2000-2003 Range, <0.02-0.35 µg/m3 Median, 0.02 µg/m3 GM, 0.02 µg/m3 <1% of samples, >2 µg/m3 <1% of samples, >0.2 µg/m3 Hennenberger et Ceramics plant Area 1.7% of samples, >2 µg/m3 Sampling, 1981-1998 al. 2001 0.6% of samples, >5 µg/m3 0.2% of samples, >25 µg/m3 Breathing zone 6.4% of sample, >2 µg/m3 2.4% of samples, >5 µg/m3 0.3% of samples, >25 µg/m3 Kreiss et al. Read the entire page →
From page 30... ... 30 TABLE 2-5 Continued Reference Setting Sample Type Summary of Key Findings Comments Kreiss et al. 1996 Beryllia ceramics plant Breathing zone Machining median, 0.6 µg/m3 (n = 130) Read the entire page →
From page 31... ... Median, 0.01 µg/m3 GM, 0.02 µg/m3 <1% of samples, >2 µg/m3 2% of samples, >0.2 µg/m3 Schuler et al. 2005 Copper-beryllium alloy Personal Production of rod and wire Sampling, 1977-2000 processing Range, <0.01-7.80 µg/m3 Median, 0.06 µg/m3 <1% of samples, >2 µg/m3 24% of samples, >0.2 µg/m3 Production of strip metal Range, <0.01-0.72 µg/m3 Median, 0.02 µg/m3 <1% of samples, >2 µg/m3 <1% of samples, >0.2 µg/m3 Production support Range, <0.01-0.33 µg/m3 Median, 0.02 µg/m3 <1% of samples, >2 µg/m3 2% of samples, >0.2 µg/m3 Administration Range, <0.01-0.11 µg/m3 Median, 0.02 µg/m3 <1% of samples, >2 µg/m3 <1% of samples, >0.2 µg/m3 (Continued) Read the entire page →
From page 32... ... 1997 Beryllium, beryllium- Area Median, 0.4 µg/m3 1984-1993 historical data alloy plant Range, 0.1-0.7 µg/m3 Pebble plant median, 0.4 µg/m3 Pebble plant range, 0.1-79.2 µg/m3 Breathing zone Median, 1.4 µg/m3 Range, 0.1-2.0 µg/m3 Pebble plant median, 1.1 µg/m3 Pebble plant range, 0.1-293.3 µg/m3 Personal Median, 1.0 µg/m3 Range, 0.1-52.6 µg/m3 Beryllium oxide production median, 3.8 µg/m3 Alloy melting, casting median, 1.75 µg/m3 Arc-furnace workers median, 1.75 µg/m3 Pebble plant median, 0.9 µg/m3 Pebble plant range, 0.1-19.0 µg/m3 Daily weighted Range, 0.5-63.11 µg/m3 1984-1993 historical data average Arc-furnace workers median, 1.65 µg/m3 Quarterly estimates based on Furnace rebuild workers median, 1.63 µg/m3 area, breathing zone, personal Pebble plant median, 0.7 µg/m3 samples Read the entire page →
From page 33... ... Ceramic production, 0.1-0.4 µg/m3 (annual medians) Breathing zone Mining, milling, 0.3-15.9 µg/m3 (annual medians) Read the entire page →
From page 34... ... 34 TABLE 2-5 Continued Reference Setting Sample Type Summary of Key Findings Comments Deubner et al. 2001a Daily weighted Mining, milling, 0.08-0.2 µg/m3 (annual medians) Read the entire page →
From page 35... ... Kent et al. 2001 Manufacturing plant, Personal Total mass mean range, 0.13-1.04 µg/m3 Andersen impactor Elmore, OH Alveolar deposition, 0.05-0.63 µg/m3 Ammonium beryllium fluoride, beryllium fluoride reduction furnace had highest concentrations Area Total mass mean range, 0.85-2.74 µg/m3 Micro-orifice uniform deposit Alveolar deposition, 0.02-0.29 µg/m3 impactor Ammonium beryllium fluoride, beryllium fluoride reduction furnace had highest concentrations Sanderson et al. Read the entire page →
From page 36... ... 1950-1978 historical data plants, PA, OH) Breathing zone Mean range, 0.4-25.6 µg/m3 (n = 36) Read the entire page →
From page 37... ... Highest samples collected in final hydroxide plant, 1952, 2 µg/m3) 9% of 3,000 samples, >2 µg/m3 Donaldson and Beryllium-production Daily weighted Mean in powdered-metal products area, 1.55 ± Samples collected, 1974 Stringer 1980 facilities average 1.97 µg/m3 (n = 105) Read the entire page →
From page 38... ... 1959 Nonoccupational Ambient-air Median around plant, 0.004 µg/m3 500 2-day samples collected sampling Median around steel mill collected for comparison, around beryllium plant, PA 0.0002 µg/m3 Eisenbud et al. 1949 Nonoccupational Ambient-air Average concentrations, 350-750 ft from plant, Based on investigations of sampling, 0.05-0.15 µg/m3 berylliosis case near beryllium modeling Highest concentration measured within 350 ft of processing plant, Lorain, OH plant, 2.1 µg/m3 Abbreviations: BeS, beryllium sensitization; CBD, chronic beryllium disease; DOE, U.S. Read the entire page →
From page 39... ... . In production, production-support, and office areas, the geometric mean beryllium concentrations were, respectively, 0.95, 0.59, and 0.05 µg/100 cm2 on work surfaces; 42.8, 73.8, and 0.07 µg/sample on cotton gloves; 0.07, 0.09, and 0.003 µg on necks; and 0.07, 0.12, and 0.003 µg on faces. Read the entire page →
From page 40... ... (2007) have reported measures of surface beryllium contamination and skin exposure (see Table 2-6) Read the entire page →
From page 41... ... , studies in the middle 1980s and earlier reported blood and urinary beryllium concentrations in unexposed populations that were below the detection limit of analytic methods available at the time (1 µg/L) , whereas in exposed populations beryllium varied from undetectable to 3 µg/L. Read the entire page →
From page 42... ... To date, no urinary or blood biomarkers have been shown to reflect workplace beryllium exposure accurately. REVIEW OF SAMPLING AND ANALYTIC METHODS Beryllium-aerosol exposure-assessment methods have changed (Kolanz et al. Read the entire page →
From page 43... ... The variable characterization of beryllium exposure also makes comparison between studies difficult. Understanding of the role of dose in CBD is complicated by several exposure measures, including the airborne concentration of beryllium, the duration of exposure, and the solubility, particle size, and type of beryllium being manufactured or machined. Read the entire page →
From page 44... ... Beryllium ammonium fluoride and beryllium fluoride are formed during the processing of beryllium hydroxide to beryllium metal. Concentration and Types of Beryllium in the Workplace This section describes the concentrations and types of beryllium exposure in workplaces. Read the entire page →
From page 45... ... Density (g/cm3) in Water Beryllium metal Be 9.012 1,287-1,292 2,970 1.846 Insoluble Beryllium oxide BeO 25.01 2,508-2,547 3,787 3.016 Insoluble Beryllium sulfate BeSO4 105.07 550-600 Not 2.443 Insoluble in cold (decomposes) Read the entire page →
From page 46... ... . In addition, the peak concentrations of beryllium particles captured by ventilation shrouds exceeded 7 mg/m3 when beryllium metal was processed, whereas the concentrations were lower by a factor of 10 when beryllium alloys were used. Read the entire page →
From page 47... ... of particles smaller than 10 µm deposited in the alveoli also showed significant relationships with CBD. That no other exposure measures showed significant relationships with CBD or BeS suggests that size-selective characterization of exposure concentrations may provide more relevant exposure metrics for predicting the incidence of CBD or BeS than does the total mass concentration of airborne beryllium. Read the entire page →
From page 48... ... in SSA was observed as a function of particle size of the beryllium oxide powder and particles collected from the screening operation. The SSA of beryllium-metal powder decreases with increasing particle size, as expected for compact particles, and the SSA of the beryllium oxide powders and particles remains constant as a function of particle size, which might be expected for clustered particles. Read the entire page →
From page 49... ... In a later study, beryllium oxide calcined at 1000°C, because of its low solubility, elicited little local pulmonary immune response whereas the much more soluble beryllium oxide calcined at 500°C produced a beryllium-specific, cell-mediated immune response in dogs (Haley 1991) Read the entire page →
From page 50... ... Development of CBD is associated with inhalation of relatively insoluble beryllium particles. At the cellular level, inhaled beryllium metal must be solubilized for cell-mediated immune reactions to occur. Read the entire page →
From page 51... ... More research is needed on the aerosol characteristics of detectable beryllium, including particle size distribution, surface area, and chemical composition. Research is also needed to understand the extent of skin exposure to beryllium and the associated risks, if any. Read the entire page →

From page 17...

... • What are the nature and magnitude of and variation in natural and anthropogenic background exposure via diet, drinking water, soil contact, and inhalation? • What are the nature and magnitude of and variation in occupational exposure to beryllium, and how have changes in workplace practices changed beryllium exposure?

2 Exposure Assessment Pages 17-51

2 Exposure Assessment
Pages 17-51