Ground Water Recharge Using Waters of Impaired Quality (1994) / Chapter Skim
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5 Economic, Legal, and Institutional Considerations
5 Economic, Legal, and Institutional Considerations
Pages 179-210
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From page 179... ...
Because ground water recharge projects are still somewhat novel, these factors are less obvious, than, for example, the familiar dynamics that led to western dams and imgation projects. This chapter examines the economics, regulatory schemes, and key actors that affect ground water recharge projects.
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From page 180... ...
Much of the economic literature on ground water resources focuses on the fact that where ground water is treated as a common property resource, extractions tend to occur at rates that are inefficient. When pumpers fail to account for all of the costs of extraction, including the user cost, the rates of extraction are greater than the economically efficient rate.
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From page 181... ...
This lesson has important implications for the artificial recharge of ground water. If ground water is treated as a common property resource, the incentive to incur the expenses associated with artificial recharge will be eroded because the additional water will be available for capture by other pumpers, who presumably are not obligated to help pay for the recharge operation.
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From page 182... ...
If the aquifer to be protected is exploited competitively without pumping restrictions, the net benefits of protection would be less than they would be if extractions were economically optimal. The Economics of Artificial Ground Water Recharge with Treated Municipal Wastewater The economic feasibility of ground water recharge with treated municipal wastewater will vary from situation to situation.
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From page 183... ...
The Cost of Water Supplies The attractiveness of treated wastewater as a source of ground water recharge depends crucially on how the cost compares to the cost of alternative sources of supply. There are several reasons for believing that treated wastewaters may enjoy considerable cost advantages over other sources in the immediate future.
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From page 184... ...
On the other hand, many aquifers contain unused storage capacity, which can be developed at relatively modest cost and without the adverse environmental consequences frequently associated with surface storage. Because ground water storage avoids many of the high costs associated with surface storage, conjunctive use-the integrated management of ground and surface water-has become an increasingly attractive option for augmenting developed water supplies.
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From page 185... ...
In the Orange County situation the least-cost alternative source of water is surface water delivered from the Metropolitan Water District at a cost of $600 per acre-foot. To this must be added the capital and operating costs of transport TABLE 5.1 Comparison of Treatment Costs and Product Water Quality, Well Injection at Orange County, California Chemical Constituent Option 1 Option 2a Option 3a Total dissolved solidsb 650 mg/1 600 mall 600 mg/1 Sodium 143 mg/1 139 mg/1 139 mg/1 Chloride 151 mgtl 140 mall 140 mg/1 Sulfate 140 mg/1 122 mg/1 122 mg/1 Total organic carbon 8.6 mall 5.5 mg/1 5.5 mg/1 Cost per acre-footC $251 $359 $387 aThe cost difference between options 2 and 3 is attributable to employment of full microfiltration for option 3 but only partial microfiltration for option 2.
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From page 186... ...
Experience with recharge projects suggests that society's laws can evolve to accommodate new strategies such as artificial recharge, if demand is strong enough. One difficult question raised by ground water recharge is, What policies should be formulated to protect public health, safety, property, third-party, and ecological interests, while not imposing inappropriate controls on this form of water development?
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From page 187... ...
Water Rights A prime issue in ground water recharge is the ownership of the water proposed for recharge. A project proponent must have the legal right to use the source water for that purpose.
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From page 188... ...
Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Oregon have recognized ground water recharge in their water laws in varying manners (solo.
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From page 189... ...
Ground water quality is the focus of much of environmental law but there is no comprehensive federal ground water statute. Congress has, however, given EPA the ability to regulate certain types of ground water recharge through the Underground Injection Control (UIC)
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From page 190... ...
The program is designed to protect ground water, including "the protection of public health and Me environment, preventing, mitigating, and remediating ground water contamination, regulating discharges to surface water and ground water and conserving ground water resources" (Reading and DuBois, 1990~. One of the requirements of the aquifer protection permit is that Me recharge water must not violate the Aquifer Water Quality Standards at the point of compliance (Ariz.
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From page 191... ...
The Water Resources Commission is to develop standards that must be met for ground water recharge permits. The project must not be "prejudicial to the public interest" (Or.
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From page 192... ...
To the degree recharge water is put to purposes other than drinking, such as landscape irrigation, there is no federal statute controlling these uses. Environmental Consequences Another regulatory mechanism with potential impact on ground water recharge is the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
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From page 193... ...
History of Regulatory Activities in California Although incidental and unplanned ground water recharge with municipal wastewater effluent has occurred for many years in California, it was not until We 1960s that We first large-scale, planned spreading operation began at Whittier Narrows in the Montebello Forebay area of Los Angeles County (Harding, 1993~. The injection of highly treated wastewater from Orange County Water District's
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From page 195... ...
Three uses of reclaimed water were considered in the statement: (1) ground water recharge by surface spreading; (2)
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From page 196... ...
The focus of the study was the Whittier Narrows ground water recharge project in the Montebello Forebay area of Los Angeles County. The primary goal of the 5-year study was to develop a database that could be used to enable health and regulatory authorities to determine whether the use of reclaimed water for ground water replenishment at Whittier Narrows should be maintained at the present level, cut back, or expanded.
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From page 197... ...
A number of state agencies are involved in the regulation of ground water recharge projects. SWRCB establishes state water quality control policy and, along with the Regional Water Quality Control Boards (RWQCBs)
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From page 198... ...
The proposed guidelines were meant to help encourage and plan for the efficient use of the state's water resources and to increase water supply reliability by identifying the means for the safe use of treated municipal wastewater for ground water recharge. In addition, the proposed guidelines were to be a guide for the regional boards in establishing ground water quality objectives and water reclamation requirements.
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From page 199... ...
They also address water quality standards, recharge methods, operahonal controls, distance to withdrawal, hme in He underground, and monitonng. TABLE 5.2 Proposed Ground Water Recharge Criteria in California: Treatment Process and Site Requirements Project Categorya II III IV Required treatments Oxidation Filtration Disinfection Organic Removal x x x x x x x x x Maximum allowable reclaimed 50 water in extracted well water (%)
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From page 200... ...
, also relate to the use of reclaimed wastewater for ground water recharge. The Ground Water Basin Protection Law seeks to ensure "the correction and prevention of irreparable damage to, or impaired use of, the ground water basins of this state caused by critical conditions of overdraft, depletion, seawater intrusion or degraded water quality" (Cal.
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From page 201... ...
INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES Many institutional factors affect the viability of ground water recharge projects. In examining these influences, the fact of their mutability should be kept prominent: an uneconomic project can look feasible if subsidies are provided, or an unhelpful legal structure can be changed.
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From page 202... ...
While ground water recharge may be an appropriate means of augmenting water supplies, it can also be attractive because of a very different type of imperative. Disposal of wastewater can be expensive, especially with escalating pollution control requirements applied to discharges.
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From page 203... ...
The challenges faced by the region are formidable, including the pressure of a growing population on water supplies, the expense of relying on imported surface water, a lack of controls on ground water mining, the danger of saltwater intrusion, and the sheer number of institutions with a role in water decisions. The solution adopted after many years of effort combined controls on ground water pumping, which were imposed through adjudication rather than state regulation, and the use of ground water recharge.
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From page 204... ...
~.~,................. PUBLIC ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF RECLAIMED WATER Water reclaimed from municipal wastewater or other sources of impaired quality holds the potential to be a significant source in water-short areas, but public opinion about such uses is a controlling factor (Bruvold, 1981~.
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From page 205... ...
Respondents opposed to various uses ranged from 56 percent who opposed drinking reclaimed water to only 1 percent who opposed the use of such water in road construction. Ground water recharge using reclaimed wastewater was opposed by 23 percent of those surveyed.
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From page 206... ...
suggested that "those who wish to demonstrate that reclaimed water is of high quality should initiate highly visible, well publicized demonstrations using reclaimed water for low-contact purposes not likely to be controversial. Such innovations would give technical experts, health officials, and the lay public experiential and scientific evidence that modern technology can provide water that is reliably of high quality in every respect.
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From page 207... ...
(N=399) (IV=403 5458 63 67 5752- 55 55 52 -- 55 55 37- 40 38 2540 19- 24 30 18 151521 7 9 271510~ ~ ~ 859 127- 3 4 58 65 1 3 54 34 5 4 207 SUMMARY The future of ground water recharge using waters of impaired quality will be crucially affected by the economic, legal, and institutional setting.
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From page 208... ...
1985. Groundwater recharge operations at Water Factory 21, Orange County, California.
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From page 209... ...
1975. A State-of-the Art Review of Health Aspects of Wastewater Reclamation for Groundwater Recharge.
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From page 210... ...
1976. Report of the Consulting Panel on Health Aspects of Wastewater Reclamation for Groundwater Recharge.
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