Careers in Science and Technology An International Perspective (1995) / Chapter Skim
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PART IV UTILIZING POINTS OF INTERVENTION TO ENHANCE AND SUSTAIN INTEREST . . .
PART IV UTILIZING POINTS OF INTERVENTION TO ENHANCE AND SUSTAIN INTEREST . . .
Pages 133-166
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From page 133... ...
PART IV UtHizing Points of Intervention to Whence and Sustain Intcrcst in ScicnQc and Technology Careers
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.2 A ROA study on the labor market for research in 19902010 (Berendsen and Willems) 3 shows that several shortages are to be expected in the hard sciences after 1995.4 The IRDAC study, Skill Shortages in Europe, indicates a low share of engineers in European industry as compared to that of the United States and Japan.5 Under the actual circumstances of weak economic growth, the existing labor market tensions are still acceptable.
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The report learned that within member countries two categories of action can be distinguished between supply and demand for research manpower: recruitment methods and retention methods. RECRUIT1\~IENT METHODS Examples reported of recruitment methods include: persuading more women to choose science and engineering careers; improving the quality of science and mathematics teaching in schools; encouraging a greater proportion of young persons to follow science and mathematics courses while in school so that, subsequently, they will be qualified to enter · .
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In general terms, these developments can be considered as the introduction of the American graduate school model on a European scale. Good examples are the Graduierten Kollegs in Germany, the Ecoles Doctorales in France, the Networks in Belgium, and the Research Schools in the Netherlands.
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1991. Research Policy and the Shaping of Research Schools in the Netherlands.
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Statistical Outline of Current Japanese Education The present Japanese school system, brought into being during the postwar U.S. armed forces occupation between 1947 and 1950, provides for six years of primary/elementary school and three years of lower secondary school (junior high school)
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Japanese elementary schools, lower secondary schools, and technical colleges are public dominant, while kindergartens, junior colleges and universities, and special training schools are private dominant in terms of school enrollment. As of May 1991, ratios of students enrolled in private elementary schools, lower secondary schools, upper secondary schools, and technical colleges were 0.710 percent, 4.07 percent, 28.9 percent, and 5.7 percent, respectively; however, the latter enrollment shares of private institutions were 78.9 percent, 91.9 percent, 73.0 percent, and 94.5 percent, respectively.
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However, teacher shortages are extremely rare and temporary certificates rarely issued. The basic requirement for the first class certificate for kindergarten, elementary, and lower secondary schools is a bachelor's degree, while for upper secondary schools a master's degree, or the completion of non-degree courses for graduate school (Senkoka)
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During the 1990 academic year, one year of compulsory training started for all new teachers of public elementary and lower secondary schools. Various other forms of in-service training programs have been designed by national, local, or school levels to meet the changing social and technological circumstances.
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Tables 8-11 show current and upcoming curricula of elementary, lower, and upper secondary schools of mathematics and science. School Textbooks: Mathematics and Science Japanese textbooks are compiled based on the course of study determined and approved by the Ministry of Education.
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CURRICULA ACTUALLY I1\IPLEMENTED BY THE TEACHER Almost all elementary and lower secondary schools organize curriculum based on the course of study, or the national unified curriculum; therefore, little 144 variation exists in terms of teaching content. Although class size and other factors differ from one school to the next, the Japanese government tries to give equal educational opportunities to all children, regardless of location, sex, race, creed, social status, economic position, or family origin.
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The situation for upper secondary schools is very different from compulsory schools. As public schools are located in a large attendance area where several public schools are located, lower secondary graduates continued to upper secondary schools on the basis of selection from either entrance examinations or school recommendations.
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education in higher institutions is currently carried out through undergraduate courses in colleges and universities, junior colleges, graduate school, technical colleges, and special training schools. The latter two schools have been established rather recently.
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Currently, 38 percent of the graduates of upper secondary schools go on to colleges and universities, and, as of 1992, if we include the advanced courses of special training schools, 54 percent go on to higher education institutions. Japanese higher education has lots of room for improvement; however, the majority of Japanese people have a deep foundation of knowledge and skills of at least compulsory-level educational course content.
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and Cullu=, 1960 1o 1992 edhion. T== 14 Percent of EnroHment iD Nabonal, Public, and Private Undergraduate Courses by Selected ~or Fields of Smdy, 1966 1o 1991 Year I All Ficlds Humanilies Social Sciences Scionce E~lneed ~Ag~culmm BC Jpn.
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TABLE 16 Female Enrollment Ratio in Institutions of Higher Education in Selected Major Fields of Study, 1960 to 1991 JUNIOR COLLEGES: PERCENTAGE OF FE:MALE Year ~Social BC Japan Yr ~Humanities Sciences Science Engineering Agriculture 1960 Showa 35 1965 40 1970 45 1975 50 1980 55 1985 60 1986 61 1987 62 1988 63 1989 Heisei 1 1990 2 1991 3 81.2 91.2 96.6 97.8 99.1 98.0 98.1 98.4 98.4 98.4 98.4 98.2 12.4 21.3 44-0 54.7 63.5 69.7 73.0 76.2 77.4 78.3 79.5 80.1 100.0 78.5 88.7 97.0 97.6 98.0 98.5 98.8 98.9 99.3 99.6 99.6 1.7 3.3 3.3 3.8 8.8 15.3 17.3 19.2 20.2 22.9 26.2 29.3 14.7 18.3 12.8 15.1 18.0 22.9 25.6 26.5 28.0 30.9 34.8 37.8 SOURCE: Ministry of Education, Science and Culture. Statistical Abstract of Education, Science, and Culture, 1960 to 1992 edition.
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Statistical Abstract of Education, Science, and Culture, 1960 to 1992 edition. 8,305 16,771 27,714 33,560 35,781 48,147 51,094 54,352 56,596 58,228 61,884 68,739 TABLE 19 Female Enrollment Ratio in Institutions of Higher Education in Selected Major Fields of Study, 1976 to 1991 GRADUATE SCHOOL MASTER'S COURSES: PERCENTAGE OF FEMALE Year ~Social BC Japan Yr ~Humanities Sciences Science Engineering Agriculture 1976 Showa 51 1980 55 1985 60 1986 61 1987 62 1988 63 1989 Heisei 1 1990 2 1991 3 27.0 8.67.5 % 0.5 % 5.1 31.9 12.58.5 1.1 7.7 33.3 18.48.9 1.8 14.7 35.6 18.48.9 2.1 16.5 37.3 20.29.6 2.4 17.8 39.1 21.410.2 2.6 15.5 41.8 23.311.0 3.0 10.8 43.9 24.712.1 3.3 11.3 46.3 27.912.7 3.7 12.9 SOURCE: Ministry of Education, Science and Culture.
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TABLE 22 Female Enrollment Ratio in Institutions of Higher Education in Selected Major Fields of Study, 1976 to 1991 GRADUATE SCHOOL DOCTOR'S COURSES: PERCENTAGE OF IRE Year ~Social BC Japan Yr ~Humanities Sciences Science Engineering Agriculture 1976 Showa 51 1980 55 1985 60 1986 61 1987 62 1988 63 1989 Heisei 1 1990 2 1991 3 17.3 %6.0 % 5.0 % 1.3 % 4.9 23.37.0 5.2 2.1 6.8 27.412.3 6.8 3.0 10.1 27.513.8 7.5 3.8 11.1 28.014.5 7.3 4.5 1 1.7 29.115.7 7.6 5.1 13.2 30.516.9 8.2 5.5 14.7 3 1.718.8 8.4 5.3 13.8 34.120.9 9.5 5.5 13.1 SOURCE: Ministry of Education. Science and Culture.
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TABLE 25 Number of Graduates of Special Training Schools by Type of Courses, 1977 to 1991 Year ~Upper Sec Advanced General Percentage BC JapanYr ~Total Female Course Course Course of Female 1977 Showa52 1978 53 1980 56 1984 59 1985 60 1989 Heisei 1 1990 2 1991 95,997 177,465 208,669 247,882 (feInale 262,716 333,025 350,360 (female 366,603 (female 145,953 55.9% 177,707 51.9% 185,421 50.6% 16,471 26,005 31,486 34,003 72.3% 33,590 41,123 42,522 62.8% 42,110 61.7% 66,381 131,039 159,716 173,324 62.6% 183,553 230,835 247,960 52.3% 266,222 51.3% 13,145 20,421 17,467 40,555 31.3%)
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. Waga Kuni no Bunkyou Shisaku Shisaku Heisei 1-Nendo to 4-Nendo (Japanese Government Policies in Education, Science and Culture 1989 ed.
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This project plans to: clearly identify ways of promoting the development of scientific and technological literacy for all; put forward educational programs in such a way as to empower all to satisfy their basic needs and be productive in an increasingly technological society; provide guidelines for the continuous professional development of science and technology educators and leaders; encourage the formation of national task forces to initiate local programs for greater scientific and technological literacy;
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To be considered urgently is a reassessment of educational policies and greater support for continuing education. Every person should have at least some basic understanding of science and technology, and no European should leave school unqualified and unskilled.
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Spain, Portugal, and Greece have been very successful in attracting funds from the European Science Foundation. WOMEN IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Ihe underrepresentation of women in some areas of science education is an unacceptable waste of intellectual and economic resources.
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WITNEC seeks to publicize educational programs aimed at increasing and diversifying the range of subject choices available to girls and to facilitate the entry of young adults into career paths and jobs in the field of information technology, electronics, and other technology-related industries. The WITNEC-UETP aims to: generate a network of universities, enterprises, and other organizations committed to increasing the number of girls and women taking up studies, careers, and autonomous activities in advanced technological fields across the EC and EFTA states; assist women studying and working in technological fields to surmount barriers that interfere with their entering into the labor market and support their technological career development; promote and support research concerning problems in this field and their solutions and to disseminate the results; 157 publicize problems, strategies, and methods already found for dealing with them, especially within the overall COMETS network; · generate action programs and pilot new initiatives of a general or specific character; encourage women undertaking technological careers to contribute to overcoming reluctance to employing women and at the same time promote information and experience exchanges between universities and enterprises; improve women's interpersonal skills; foreign language and · take women with basic math and scientific knowledge, often in low-level jobs, through programs to the point where they could enter vocational education courses and ultimately higher level courses; offer knowledge and skill development in technological fields to women without any previous technological background via a program of
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European Research Conferences A shared scientific understanding leading naturally to scientific communications, cooperation, and exchange has in the past provided an important bridge between European nations. This bridge has often been built many years ahead of other economic and political boundaries.
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Gordon research conferences. The foundation has proposed that their program of European research conferences cover all scientific disciplines, and, in due course, expand the conferences into the social sciences and humanities.
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The main ideas of the networks and conferences are to foster mutual awareness, to promote mobility in building scientific communities on a European scale, and to facilitate interdisciplinary research. ESF Networks ESF Networks have the following characteristics: .
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The Human Capital and Mobility Program The Human Capital and Mobility Program covers all scientific and technological sectors such as mathematics and information science, physics, chemistry, life science, engineering, earth science, and the environment. The program also covers areas of social and human sciences likely to improve European competitiveness and bring about sustainable economic development in fields such as economic and management sciences, environmental economics, and in the interconnections between science, technology, and society, and to deal with the general public's understanding and acceptance of science and technology.
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l i 11 JI . Accoml~crlylng Measures i l ll l i 1 154.01103 Large2 scale Facl~es FIGURE 6 Human Capital and Mobility 1992: overall participation.
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Consider, for example, that quantitative experts at this conference have described many factors involved in constructing national and international data sets that simply track the number of individuals entering or leaving the pool of workers in S&T! Furthermore, as John Moore reminded us yesterday, coupled with econometric models, labor force statistics in most countries have served human resource policies quite well over the years.
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A number of speakers at this meeting, such as Paul Baltes, Yu Xie, Jon Miller, and Thomas Whiston, have identified some aspects of career exploration and career planning that might be examined through longitudinal analyses: Goal setting: levels of aspiration, timing of career decisions, students' understanding of occupations, students' understanding of career options Attitudes: toward S&T, toward mathematics and science studies, toward the life of scientists Achievement or performance: on standardized tests in science and mathematics, differences between students who aspire to S&T careers and those who aspire to other vocations Parental expectations and parental education Gender differences in the exploration of S&T career options Environmental variables Such studies might be of special interest to analysts in Japan as they head toward further educational reforms that will emphasize "individualization/ personalization" of S&T studies at the secondary school level. SCHOOL-TO-WORK TRANSITIONS Another promising area for study is the stage of "school-to-work transitions." Dr.
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The European Research Conference, which Dr. Donnelly described, aims to: (1)
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