Assessing Readiness in Military Women The Relationship of Body, Composition, Nutrition, and Health (1998) / Chapter Skim
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2 Body Composition
2 Body Composition
Pages 33-60
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From page 33... ...
Similar attention is not devoted to personnel who are underweight; however, this was not always the case. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Beginning during World War TI, the body composition of prospective soldiers was assessed to ensure that they possessed a minimum weight for their height and an appearance that was believed to be commensurate with fitness and health, in the judgment of a physician.
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According to DoD Directive 1308.1 (1981) , which mandated body fat assessment, the maintenance of a desirable body composition was "an integral part of physical fitness, general health, and military appearance" (p.
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35 ._ Ct sit 3 at: o o .~ Cal o o o Cal · _ ·r V: 1 ._ x ~o _4 ~ 1.
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36 a' o o · _ · _ Cal o o o m ·= V, V, V]
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Body weight per se is the sum of individual body composition components or compartments, which are of greater physiological or pathological significance than composite body mass. General Concepts Body weight or mass represents the sum of over 35 body composition components (Wang et al., 19921.
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BM] tabulations now supplant earlier mortality tables based on body weight and height such as those published by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company (1983)
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However, as shown by Behnke and colleagues in the ~ 940s in a population of athletes and Navy personnel, increased weight for height may signify greater than average muscle mass rather than excess body fat in the individual (Welham and Behnke, ~ 9421. Thus, a second level of body composition assessment must be applied to distinguish accurately between those who are overfat and those with greater than average muscle mass among those individuals whose BMT exceeds the designated maximum.
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provides two important opportunities: the possibility of expanding body composition-functional studies, and the potential of developing anthropometric skeletal muscle prediction models. As an example of skeletal muscle functional studies, Mello and colleagues (1995)
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BODY COMPOSITION MEASUREMENT A brief discussion of body composition assessment methods follows. For the purpose of this discussion, assessment methods will be divided into expedient anthropometric methods, that is, those that can be applied in field situations with minimal equipment; and criterion methods, which require costly and immobile equipment, but the results of which may be used to validate the expedient methods.
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The clevelopment of body fat equations for each service has been reviewed by Hodgclon (19921. As described earlier, the Marine Co~ps was the first service to develop and use circumferential estimations of body composition.
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. The mean value for critical percent body fat across all heights was 33.5 ~ 0.2 for women; to this figure was added approximately one standard error for body composition measurement using the Navy equations and the resulting figure of 36 percent was adopted as the upper limit for percent body fat for women.
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. Criterion Methods An important aspect of developing anthropometric body composition equations is standardization against a reference or criterion method.
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are then used to calculate total body FFM and fat. An important recent advance in body composition measurement is the use of DXA alone to estimate body composition (IOM, 19971.
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In addition, DXA yields information about regional body composition and has the advantage of producing results that are independent of ethnic differences if the software allows. Most DXA systems with appropriate software are capable of estimating whole-body and regional bone mineral, body fat, and fat-free soft tissues.
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Genetic Influences on Body Composition Adoption and twin studies that have assessed the relationship between body composition and genetics (Bouchard, 1996, 1997) have provided heritability estimates that are quite varied.
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The results indicate that there are as yet undetermined synergistic effects of genetics and environment on body composition (Rosenbaum et al., 19971. Ethnic Differences in Fat-Free Mass The most well-documented difference in body composition between Caucasians and other ethnic groups, particularly African Americans, is an increased density of FFM in non-Caucasians that is reflective of a heavier and denser skeletal mass.
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Studies comparing distributions of visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue between African American and Caucasian women have found lower levels of upperbody visceral adipose tissue in 9 African American women compared to ~ ~ of their Caucasian counterparts (Conway et al., 19951; lower levels of total, visceral, and subcutaneous adipose tissue in 20 normal weight African American girls compared to 20 Caucasian dirts (Yanovski et al. ~ ~x ~ ~- 11 ~ · ~ '- , ~ t990~; and Snaky lower visceral adipose tissue and visceral-subcutaneous adipose tissue ratios for a given waist-hip ratio when adjusted for total body fat among 25 African American women compared with 25 Caucasian women (Albu et al., 19971.
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The issue of ethnic differences in FFM and body fat distribution has significant implications for the design of anthropometric equations to assess body fat in military women as well as the choice of a criterion method to validate those equations. ~ -- ~ -^~ ^ _~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ^~ ~s ~v~V~ I1~ ~ ~ ~11 111~1 ~=1111~1 L L\J INFLUENCES OF BODY COMPOSITION ON HEALTH, FITNESS, AND APPEARANCE Body Composition and Health Body Fat Distribution Evidence for a relationship between body fat as indicated by BMT and health risk was presented earlier.
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BODY COMPOSITION . Body Composition and Fitness Fatness influences fitness because excessive adiposity may add a functionally inert component of weight that must be carried during various physical activities.
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Body Composition and Appearance With respect to the role of body composition in appearance, two aspects of body composition prevail; these are total fatness and fat distribution. Both excessive thinness and overweight may be associated with an undesirable military appearance.
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BODY COMPOSITION TABLE 2-5 Mean Body Mass index (BMT) of Female Olympic Athletes, ~ 9721976 Event n Mean BMI*
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, leading the authors to conclude that factors other than body composition, notably subjective judgment, influence appearance ratings. In the 1992 Committee on Military Nutrition Research (CMNR)
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The methods used to assess body fat must be 1 ~ ~ ~ accurate enough to classify soldiers, must not grossly over- or underestimate the body fat of individuals, and must not discriminate against particular groups because of age or ethnic differences in body composition. The equations currently in use underpredict body fat for individuals of higher body fat and overpredict body fat slightly at the lower end; nevertheless, there is concern that some of the women with greatest physical strength and lifting capability are those most at risk for exceeding the body fat standards and being referred to weight control programs, with significant professional consequences.
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1995. Human body composition and the epidemiology of chronic disease.
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Pp. 57-70 in Body Composition and Physical Performance, Applications for the Military Services, B.M.
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1992. Body Composition and Physical Performance, Applications for the Military Services, E3.M.
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Pp. 223-244 ;n Techniques for Measuring Body Composition, Proceedings of a Conference, Quartermaster Research and Engineering Center, Natick, Mass., January 22-23, 1959, J
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Pp. 89-103 in Body Composition and Physical Performance, Applications for the Military Services, B.M.
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