The Positive Sum Strategy Harnessing Technology for Economic Growth (1986) / Chapter Skim
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The Physical Sciences As the Basis for Modern Technology
The Physical Sciences As the Basis for Modern Technology
Pages 227-254
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From page 227... ...
Since this technology involves every aspect of the wide reaches of physical science gained during this century, we have a powerful answer to questions of the practical values of research. Indeed, I submit that the physical sciences have moved to a place where they will increasingly stimulate not just originate but sizmz~late—large new fronners of technology anal engineering.
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From page 228... ...
But in this century particularly, new and compelling factors in the physical sciences have arisen These are vastly more subtle than the reasonable and even tactile phenomena of classical mechanics, fluid dynamics, and such phenomenological descriptions of how matter behaves. They were foreshadowed by peculiarities of chemical reactions, whereby atomic and molecular conversions were increasingly shown tO be the basis for one category of transformation of matter.
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From page 229... ...
I have moved over this chronology of the physical sciences in order to account for what is presented in the remainder of this chapter. I submit that the physical sciences have moved since midcentury beyond their central position in intellectual understanding of the nature of the universe through physics and chemistry to a place where they will increasingly stimulate— not just originate but stimulate large new frontiers of technology and engineering.
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From page 230... ...
~ -- 0=> ~ ~ ·-0=? ~-~0=< ~ ~ 0= ~ A- A- O=< ,N -~- < - A- 0=; > ~ N-~-°=~_~.~o=: ~ < N—H -- O= ~ N_~~ <=0 -- ~- No -.H—N :=O -- ~-N: :-0FIGUR£ 2 Knowledge of detailed molecular structure and molecular packing in condensed phases—as illus~ated in this figure by the varying molecular arrangements in the nylon families originated by Carothers now underlies the technology of synthetic fibers, plastics, rubbers, and other materials.
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From page 231... ...
We see that the scientific concepts described are now permitting statistical descriptions of real crystals. These crystals are regular arrangements of atomic units (ions, molecules)
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From page 233... ...
and their co-workers. MAXIMUM TO LERAB LE CONCENTRATIONS FOR VARIOUS IMPURITY IONS Element Iron Co pper Chromium Cobalt IV anganese Nickel \/anadium Concentration, parts per billion 20 50 20 2 100 20 100 Concentration calculated from published values.
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From page 234... ...
breaking only rawer uniformly in stresses of 800,000 to 1 million pounds per square inch, or much closer to the theoretical strength of SiO2 than was ever imagined to be possible. Phase Rule Applications Another fascinating example of how the bulk science of thermodynamics and the fine structural concepts of crystal structure and atomic interaction have combined is found in the modern applications of Me phase rule, enunciated by Gibbs.
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From page 235... ...
But it represents, also, a historic reminder of what the physical sciences lead to. Recall that the destiny of kingdoms, of empires, and indeed of civilization was determined in the Bronze Age by the strength, the hardness, of the weaponry, shields, and spears made of bronze.
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From page 236... ...
S / 1 1 \ am \ l L\: 1 1 ~ I t 1 1 ! At °/0 Au in Pt PHASE DIAGRAM FREE ENERGY CURV E AT T' a: INSI DE SPINODAL B: OUTSIDE S P I ~ O ~ A L FIGURE 9 Phase dials showing the fund~en~1 thermodynamic variations with temperature in the composition of varying amounts of gold in platinum, from which it is possible to select certain processing conditions yielding combinations of crystals of optimal physical properties in the alloy
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From page 237... ...
WPRO~CKEL) 50 150 SPINODAL FIGURE 10 Examples of structure enhancement compared to conventional yield strengths of classic bronzes and other copper alloys.
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From page 238... ...
In turn, that stiffness relates to the familiar '`hardness" of families of solids, in ways reflecting the valence, or quantum mechanical binding, of the various elements (Figure 141. Thus we can see Me reasons for varying, the tensile s~eng~s of substances that provide shelter, clothing, machines, and defense (Figure 15~.
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From page 239... ...
Again, the fundamental atomic character is directly reflected in gross mechanical behavior.
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From page 240... ...
, characterized Trough the science of atomic composition and spacing. Material Silica Boron Filaments Deposited on Tungsten Patented Steel (0.9C)
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From page 241... ...
_ pe~4 Is AS ~~- 3~ ~ ~~ ~~:~;= Id Icy s - ~~ an, ~5: ~~ .~-~: ~ 0~0 ^~: Ems. sow =:~0 huge speck: o~ (ceded ~ dams ~ :~.
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From page 242... ...
However, they also play increasingly important roles as hydrocarbon polymers, like polyethylene and polypropylene. Their use as packaging, insulating, and preserving material, even as plumbing and water-distnbution ducts, as well as dielectrics for
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From page 243... ...
We see further that in such crucial uses as cable, piping,, plumbing, roofing, and other structures, hydrocarbons like polyethylene and polypropylene can be decisively protected against oxidation by small amounts of carbon black or other chemically and physically elegant reagents (Figure 211.These circumstances are all the result of applying atomic and molecular theory and scientific analysis to these synthetic materials or their natural petroleum precursors.
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From page 244... ...
Surface Technology Beyond Be pervasive domains of bulk matter and of media for light guides, cables, and the like lie many other examples of how extensive innovations and engineering are emerging increasingly from applied science. The wide realm of surface technology is a compelling example.
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From page 245... ...
t OF LOCI oBr PI AS M-Y (CHALCOGENIDEI;) ·Se aTe M-M' (METAL-METAL1 ELECTRONEGATIVITY DIRE FIGURE 22 Diagram of electrical conducting properties of diverse classes of materials, as determined by the electronegativity differences in their atoms, showing intimate connection of atomic structure with technical electromagnetic behavior.
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From page 246... ...
A particularly fascinating modern instance of the continuing, versatility of this science is how beams of ions can be directed down certain channels or pathways in crystals or films to produce not only importantly modified structures, but also information from scattering and interactions about the nature of their host solid (Figure 231. Electron beams are among the simplest but most highly useful embodiments of these particles.
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From page 247... ...
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES AS THE BASIS FOR MODE~ TECHNOLOGY -- ~ CHANNELING ION BEAM 1~ — —— ~ O O O O O~ O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O ~ O O O O O O - __ o ~S J ~ lo_C_ J W _ lo-2 100 p RANDOM B CHANNELED I I 77 _ _: _~< B RANDONI \p CHANNELED SILICON IMPLANTAT10N WITH 400KoV BORON OR PHOS.
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From page 248... ...
Analysis using, these schemes commonly involves radioactive counting instruments and mass spectroscopy, in which the isotopic atom becomes a charged particle. Likewise, in reference to We use of unstable nuclei with their useful radiation output, the synthetic technetium99 derived from neuron bombardment of molybdenum is the most widely
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From page 249... ...
In this way the entire character of technical engineering and economic operation has been enhanced beyond the empincal, often purely descriptive, stages on which manufacture and mining depended for a thousand years. In some fields of the highest innovation and sophisticated technology, we are now seeing the elegant principles of twentieth-century physical science, along with the experiments and techniques achieved, being combined into operational systems for dramatic advances in economic and social functions.
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From page 250... ...
Thus, since as noted, this technology does involve nearly every aspect of He wide reaches of physical science gained during this century, we have a powerful answer to questions of the practical values of research. When the press and politicians question its relevance or economic return, it can be EFFUSION OVENS MASS S'=-TROME:ER _ _ _ _ SCREEN I_ \G~ \ / As / ULTRA \ H IGH VACUUM J "% HEATED GoAs S U BStR ATE —SHUTTER M OLECULAR BEAMS ELECTRON ~ BEAM FIGURE 25 Arrangement of molecular beam and atomic beam generators for gallium and arsenic to create new semiconductor films of unique quality for digital circuitry, such as in high-performance computers.
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From page 251... ...
Indeed, the behavior of the domains produced, for instance, win gallium arsenide and alternating additions of aluminum gallium arsenide in Me presence of a silicon substrate, exhibits charge mobilities never before achieved (Figure 261. The resulting transistors are already He essence of supercomputers and superspeed circuitry.
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From page 252... ...
This exceedingly attractive system, which seems certain to have a strong impact on heterogeneous-catalysis creation in the chemical industry, on surface stabilization, and in various other applications mentioned, is termed MOCVD metallo-organic chemical vapor deposition. It is being controlled by highly sophisticated flow techniques regulated by microprocessors and yielding kinetics of particle synthesis in the high vacuum, which are themselves of deep interest to the chemical and materials industries.
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From page 253... ...
Thus, the selectively built heterostructure transistor obtained from molecular-beam epitaxy, including a multilayered sandwich of ultrapure gallium arsenide with aluminum gallium arsenide layers that are heavily doped, O ,0 I ......
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From page 254... ...
Newton and Maxwell were referred to at the beginning of this chapter; we should also remember the host of mathematicians who mastered statistical mechanics, group theory, symbolic logic, and an array of other elegant representations of Be mind. While our progress in physical science is an adornment of civilization, its modern excellence and extent derive especially from bow the content and Be modes of Bought Mat mathematics has engendered.
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