Implications of Emerging Micro- and Nanotechnologies
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This study was supported by Contract/Grant No. F49620-01-1-0438 between the National Academy of Sciences and United States Air Force. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.
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COMMITTEE ON IMPLICATIONS OF EMERGING MICROAND NANOTECHNOLOGIES
STEVEN R.J. BRUECK, Chair,
University of New Mexico, Albuquerque
S. THOMAS PICRAUX, Vice Chair,
Arizona State University, Tempe
JOHN H. BELK,
The Boeing Company, St. Louis, Missouri
ROBERT J. CELOTTA,
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland
WILLIAM C. HOLTON,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh
SIEGFRIED W. JANSON,
The Aerospace Corporation, Los Angeles
WAY KUO,
Texas A&M University, College Station
DAVID J. NAGEL,
George Washington University, Washington, D.C.
P. ANDREW PENZ,
Science Applications International Corporation, Richardson, Texas
ALBERT P. PISANO,
University of California, Berkeley
ROSEMARY L. SMITH,
University of California, Davis
PETER J. STANG,
University of Utah, Salt Lake City
GEORGE W. SUTTON,
SPARTA, Arlington, Virginia
WILLIAM M. TOLLES, Consultant,
Alexandria, Virginia
ROBERT J. TREW,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg
MARY H. YOUNG,
HRL Laboratories, Malibu, California
Liaison
Air Force Science and Technology Board
ALAN H. EPSTEIN,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
Staff
JAMES C. GARCIA, Study Director
JAMES E. KILLIAN, Study Director
JAMES MYSKA, Research Associate
PAMELA A. LEWIS, Senior Project Assistant
LINDA D. VOSS, Technical Writer
AIR FORCE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY BOARD
ROBERT A. FUHRMAN, Chair,
Lockheed Corporation (retired), Pebble Beach, California
R. NOEL LONGUEMARE, Vice Chair, Private Consultant,
Ellicott City, Maryland
LYNN CONWAY,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
WILLIAM H. CRABTREE, Consultant,
Cincinnati, Ohio
LAWRENCE J. DELANEY, President, CEO, and Chairman of the Board,
Areté Associates, Arlington, Virginia
STEVEN D. DORFMAN,
Hughes Electronics (retired), Los Angeles, California
EARL H. DOWELL, Mechanical Engineering,
Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
ALAN H. EPSTEIN,
Gas Turbine Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
DELORES M. ETTER, Professor,
U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland
ALFRED B. GSCHWENDTNER,
Lincoln Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Lexington, Massachusetts
BRADFORD W. PARKINSON,
Stanford University, Stanford, California
RICHARD R. PAUL, Vice President,
Strategic Development, Phantom Works, The Boeing Company, Seattle, Washington
ROBERT F. RAGGIO, Executive Vice President,
Dayton Aerospace, Inc., Dayton, Ohio
ELI RESHOTKO, Professor Emeritus,
Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
LOURDES SALAMANCA-RIBA, Professor,
Materials Engineering Department, University of Maryland, College Park
EUGENE L. TATTINI, Deputy Director,
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California
Staff
BRUCE A. BRAUN, Director
MICHAEL A. CLARKE, Associate Director
WILLIAM E. CAMPBELL, Administrative Officer
CHRIS JONES, Financial Associate
DEANNA P. SPARGER, Senior Project Assistant
DANIEL E.J. TALMAGE, Research Associate
Preface
Biology long ago adopted the micro- and nanoscales. The machinery of genomics is based on nanoscale interactions, and mosquitoes, ants, termites, and other insects are exquisite examples of autonomous, intelligent micromachines that engage in both independent and cooperative (swarm) behavior. While mankind’s deliberate use of nanotechnology goes back at least as far as the firing of Venetian glass during the Renaissance, only today are we developing the scientific base—theory, fabrication science, materials sophistication, and measurement capabilities—for a full-scale assault on nanotechnology.
Technology has been steadily moving into the micro- and nanoscale realms for some time. Fabrication technologies for integrated circuits are at the edge of the nanoscale, with gate lengths less than 100 nm in the most advanced microprocessors. Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices are integrating mechanical motion (and other properties) on the microscale with electronics and generating new approaches to applications and even new industries.
The Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Science, Technology, and Engineering requested that the Committee on Implications of Emerging Micro- and Nanotechnologies, established by the National Research Council, assess the implications of emerging micro- and nanotechnologies for the Air Force. The committee was asked to characterize the state of the art in micro- and nanotechnologies, review the adequacy of military investment strategies for micro-and nanotechnologies, and recommend research areas to accelerate the opportunities for exploiting these technologies in Air Force mission capabilities and systems.
The committee received briefings from experts in varied aspects of micro-and nanotechnologies from within and outside the Air Force. Four implications of these evolving technologies are clear: ever-increasing information capabilities, a relentless drive toward miniaturization, new materials with new functionality based on nanoscale structuring, and higher-level systems integration, with increased functionality leading ultimately to autonomous systems. Some of the challenges are as large as the opportunities, including translating the unique properties of micro- and nanostructures into macro effects and manufacturing micro- and nanomaterials and components inexpensively on a large scale.
Suffice it to say, micro- and nanotechnologies are an important area of research opportunity at a productive stage of development. The impacts, while not entirely predictable, can be characterized in general terms and will clearly be significant. The Air Force should harness the power of these technologies for its missions.
The scope of this study was daunting, covering many orders of magnitude in spatial scale and many decades of future progress. The committee is indebted to the experts, both within and outside the Air Force, who took the time to share their insights. The committee greatly appreciates the support and assistance of National Research Council staff members James Garcia, James Killian, Pamela Lewis, and James Myska and consultant Linda Voss in the development and production of this report.
Steven R.J. Brueck, Chair
S. Thomas Picraux, Vice Chair
Committee on Implications of Emerging Micro- and Nanotechnologies
Acknowledgment of Reviewers
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report:
Larry R. Dalton, University of Washington, Seattle
Elsa Reichmanis, Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies, Murray Hill, New Jersey
Lourdes Salamanca-Riba, University of Maryland, College Park
Henry I. Smith, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
T.S. Sudarshan, Materials Modification, Inc., Fairfax, Virginia
Richard Taylor, Hewlett-Packard Laboratories, Bristol, United Kingdom
George M. Whitesides, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Royce W. Murray, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Appointed by the National Research Council, he was
responsible for making certain than an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests solely with the authoring committee and the institution.
Figures, Tables, and Boxes
FIGURES
1-1 |
Model of a MEMS safety switch, |
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1-2 |
Atomic force microscopic image of InAs quantum dots, |
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1-1-1 |
Dimensional scale, |
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1-2-1 |
The SNAP-1 nanosatellite, |
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2-1 |
Integrated circuit growth, |
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2-2 |
Lithography half-pitch feature size versus time, |
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2-3 |
Possible roadmap, |
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2-4 |
Worldwide government R&D spending on nanotechnology, |
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3-1 |
Power versus frequency for high-frequency microwave devices, |
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3-2 |
Yearly radiation dose in silicon, |
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3-3 |
Radiation environment for circular equatorial orbits, |
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3-4 |
Diode laser thresholds, |
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3-5 |
InAs quantum dashes grown on InP, |
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3-6 |
Optical MEMS examples, |
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3-7 |
RF MEMS capacitors, |
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3-8 |
Schematic of a situational awareness system, |
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3-9 |
Paradigm shifts in software, |
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3-10 |
Micromachined Sun sensor, |
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3-11 |
Boeing/Endevco pressure belt, |
3-12 |
A typical pressure-sensitive paint result for a wind tunnel model of a transonic transport airplane, |
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3-13 |
The Very Large Array, |
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3-14 |
Micromachined gas turbine engine, |
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3-15 |
Silicon turbine from the micromachined gas turbine engine, |
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3-16 |
Planar glass layers for a batch-producible cold gas propulsion module, |
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3-17 |
Spacecraft power for INTELSAT satellites, |
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3-18 |
Use of a momentum-exchange tether to perform an orbit transfer, |
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3-1-1 |
Carbon nanotube structures, |
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3-2-1 |
Swarm of nanosatellites, |
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4-1 |
Communities needed for the production, maintenance, and use of military hardware, |
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4-2 |
Lithography examples, |
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4-3 |
The sequential steps in LIGA, |
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4-4 |
Schematic of the structures used in LISC, |
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4-5 |
Integrated circuit production, |
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4-6 |
Cross-sectional photograph of a silicon wafer processed by deep reactive ion etching, |
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4-7 |
Rotapod MEMS device, |
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4-8 |
Principle of DNA-assisted pick and place, |
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4-9 |
DNA-assisted microassembly, |
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4-10 |
Lenslet array fabricated using hydrophobic/hydrophilic selectivity, |
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4-11 |
Cumulative user accounts for the MEMS exchange, |
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4-12 |
Cut-away of the digital mirror device structural model, |
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4-13 |
Photomicrograph of the digital mirror device, |
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4-1-1 |
Two-dimensional active pixel sensor array, |
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5-1 |
Air Force nanotechnology research, |
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5-2 |
Trends in federal R&D funding, FY 1990–2003, |
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5-3 |
Funding of basic research by DoD, |
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5-4 |
Science and technology funding levels by Service, |
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5-5 |
Integrated circuit sales, |
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6-1-1 |
DARPA/Aerospace Corp. picosatellites, |
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6-2-1 |
The AeroVironment Black Widow micro air vehicle, |
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6-2-2 |
Subsystem layout, size, and mass of the Black Widow, |
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A-1 |
A computerized manufacturing procedure for nanoproducts, |
TABLES
ES-1 |
Recommended Air Force Roles in Micro- and Nanotechnology Research, |
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ES-2 |
Taxonomy of Micro- and Nanotechnology Research Areas and Their Relevance to the Air Force, |
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ES-3 |
Selected Mission and Platform Opportunity Areas, |
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2-1 |
Predictions of 2001 ITRS for Selected Parameters, |
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3-1 |
Approximate Radiation Hardness Levels for Semiconductor Devices, |
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4-1 |
Reliability Paradigm for Nanoproducts, |
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4-2 |
High Complexity of the Digital Mirror Device, |
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5-1 |
Challenges and Impact Areas, |
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5-2 |
Air Force Nanotechnology Research, |
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5-3 |
AFOSR-Managed DURINT Programs, |
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5-4 |
Nanotechnology MURIs in FY 2001, |
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5-5 |
AFOSR Technology Grants in FY 2001, |
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6-1 |
Selected Mission and Platform Opportunity Areas, |
BOXES
1-1 |
A Matter of Scale, |
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1-2 |
Small Satellites: How Small Can We Go?, |
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3-1 |
The Ubiquitous Carbon Nanotube, |
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3-2 |
Emergent Behavior of Swarms of Microplatforms, |
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4-1 |
MOSIS, |
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5-1 |
Expected Impacts of Research Supported by the Air Force Nanotechnology Program, |
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5-2 |
Initial DoD Focus in Nanotechnology, |
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5-3 |
Air Force Nanotechnology Program, |
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6-1 |
Nano- and Picosatellites, |
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6-2 |
The Black Widow Micro Air Vehicle, |
Acronyms
AFM
atomic force microscope
AFOSR
Air Force Office of Scientific Research
AFRL
Air Force Research Laboratory
AFSTB
Air Force Science and Technology Board
APD
avalanche photo diode
ASIC
application-specific integrated circuit
ASIM
application-specific integrated microinstrument
BARC
Bead Array Counter
CA
cellular automata
CAD
computer-aided design
CAM
computer-aided manufacturing
CAPP
computer-aided process planning
CBM
condition-based maintenance
CMOS
complementary metal oxide semiconductor
CNT
carbon nanotube
CONOPS
concept of operations
CPU
central processing unit
DARPA
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
DDR&E
Director of Defense Research and Engineering
DMD
digital mirror device
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid
DoD
Department of Defense
DRAM
dynamic random-access memory
DSP
digital signal processor
DURINT
Defense University research in nanotechnology
DURIP
Defense University Research Instrumentation Program
ECL
emitter-coupled logic
EDAC
error detection and control
ELINT
electronic intelligence
ELO
epitaxial lateral overgrowth
EPROM
erasable programmable read-only memory
EUV
extreme ultraviolet
FEL
free-electron laser
FY
fiscal year
GEO
geosynchronous orbit
GLOW
gross liftoff weight
GMR
giant magnetoresistive
GPS
Global Positioning System
GTO
geosynchronous transfer orbit
HEMT
high-electron-mobility transistor
IC
integrated circuit
IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IMU
inertial measurement unit
IR
infrared
IT
information technology
ITRS
International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors
JSEP
Joint Service Electronics Program
JSTARS
Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System
LANL
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
LCE
life-cycle engineering
LEO
low Earth orbit
LIGA
Lithographie, Galvanoformung, und Abformung
LISA
lithographically induced self-assembly
LISC
lithographically induced self-construction
MAC
MEMS-based active aerodynamic flight control vehicle
MACSAT
multiple access communications satellite
MAV
micro air vehicle
MBE
molecular beam epitaxy
MCM
multichip modules
MEMS
microelectromechanical systems
MEU
multiple-event upset
MOEMS
microoptoelectromechanical system
MOSFET
metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor
MPG
micropower generator
MRAM
magnetic random-access memory
MURI
Multidisciplinary University Research Initiative
NDR
negative differential resistance
NEMS
nanoelectromechanical system
NIL
nanoimprint lithography
nm
nanometer
NNI
National Nanotechnology Initiative
NRC
National Research Council
PHM
condition-based and prognostics health monitoring
pico
prefix for 10−12
PMMA
polymethylmethacrylate
QDCA
quantum-dot cellular automata
R&D
research and development
RDT&E
research, development, testing, and evaluation
RF
radio frequency
RTD
resonant tunneling diode
S&T
science and technology
SEM
scanning electron microscope
SEU
single-event upset
Si
silicon
SIA
Semiconductor Industry Association
SOC
system-on-a-chip
SPENVIS
Space Environment Information System
SRAM
static random-access memory
SRMU
solid rocket motor unit
STTL
Shottky transistor-transistor logic
SWNT
single-wall carbon nanotube
TFSOI
thin-film silicon-on-insulator
TTL
transistor-transistor logic