THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY
Opportunities, Costs, Barriers, and R&D Needs
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report and the study on which it is based were supported by Grant No. DE-FG36-02GO12114 from the U.S. Department of Energy. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
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COMMITTEE ON ALTERNATIVES AND STRATEGIES FOR FUTURE HYDROGEN PRODUCTION AND USE
MICHAEL P. RAMAGE, NAE,1 Chair,
ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Company (retired), Moorestown, New Jersey
RAKESH AGRAWAL, NAE,
Air Products and Chemicals, Inc., Allentown, Pennsylvania
DAVID L. BODDE,
University of Missouri, Kansas City
ROBERT EPPERLY, Consultant,
Mountain View, California
ANTONIA V. HERZOG,
Natural Resources Defense Council, Washington, D.C.
ROBERT L. HIRSCH,
Science Applications International Corporation, Alexandria, Virginia
MUJID S. KAZIMI,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
ALEXANDER MACLACHLAN, NAE,
E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company (retired), Wilmington, Delaware
GENE NEMANICH, Independent Consultant,
Sugar Land, Texas
WILLIAM F. POWERS, NAE,
Ford Motor Company (retired), Ann Arbor, Michigan
MAXINE L. SAVITZ, NAE, Consultant (retired, Honeywell),
Los Angeles, California
WALTER W. (CHIP) SCHROEDER,
Proton Energy Systems, Inc., Wallingford, Connecticut
ROBERT H. SOCOLOW,
Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
DANIEL SPERLING,
University of California, Davis
ALFRED M. SPORMANN,
Stanford University, Stanford, California
JAMES L. SWEENEY,
Stanford University, Stanford, California
Project Staff
Board on Energy and Environmental Systems (BEES)
MARTIN OFFUTT, Study Director
ALAN CRANE, Senior Program Officer
JAMES J. ZUCCHETTO, Director, BEES
PANOLA GOLSON, Senior Project Assistant
NAE Program Office
JACK FRITZ, Senior Program Officer
Consultants
Dale Simbeck,
SFA Pacific, Inc.
Elaine Chang,
SFA Pacific, Inc.
BOARD ON ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
DOUGLAS M. CHAPIN, NAE,1 Chair,
MPR Associates, Alexandria, Virginia
ROBERT W. FRI, Vice Chair,
Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C.
ALLEN J. BARD, NAS,2
University of Texas, Austin
DAVID L. BODDE,
University of Missouri, Kansas City
PHILIP R. CLARK, NAE,
GPU Nuclear Corporation (retired), Boonton, New Jersey
CHARLES GOODMAN,
Southern Company Services, Birmingham, Alabama
DAVID G. HAWKINS,
Natural Resources Defense Council, Washington, D.C.
MARTHA A. KREBS,
California Nanosystems Institute (retired), Los Angeles, California
GERALD L. KULCINSKI, NAE,
University of Wisconsin, Madison
JAMES J. MARKOWSKY, NAE,
American Electric Power (retired), North Falmouth, Massachusetts
DAVID K. OWENS,
Edison Electric Institute, Washington, D.C.
WILLIAM F. POWERS, NAE,
Ford Motor Company (retired), Ann Arbor, Michigan
EDWARD S. RUBIN,
Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
MAXINE L. SAVITZ, NAE,
Honeywell, Inc. (retired), Los Angeles, California
PHILIP R. SHARP,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
ROBERT W. SHAW, JR.,
Aretê Corporation, Center Harbor, New Hampshire
SCOTT W. TINKER,
University of Texas, Austin
JOHN J. WISE, NAE,
Mobil Research and Development Company (retired), Princeton, New Jersey
Staff
JAMES J. ZUCCHETTO, Director
ALAN CRANE, Senior Program Officer
MARTIN OFFUTT, Program Officer
DANA CAINES, Financial Associate
PANOLA GOLSON, Project Assistant
Acknowledgments
The Committee on Alternatives and Strategies for Future Hydrogen Production and Use wishes to acknowledge and thank the many individuals who contributed significantly of their time and effort to this National Academies’ National Research Council (NRC) study, which was done jointly with the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) Program Office. The presentations at committee meetings provided valuable information and insight on advanced technologies and development initiatives that assisted the committee in formulating the recommendations included in this report.
The committee expresses its thanks to the following individuals who briefed the committee: Alex Bell (University of California, Berkeley); Larry Burns (General Motors); John Cassidy (UTC, Inc.); Steve Chalk (U.S. Department of Energy [DOE]); Elaine Chang (SFA Pacific); Roxanne Danz (DOE); Pete Devlin (DOE); Jon Ebacher (GE Power Systems); Charles Forsberg (Oak Ridge National Laboratory [ORNL]); David Friedman (Union of Concerned Scientists); David Garman (DOE); David Gray (Mitretek); Cathy Gregoire-Padro (National Renewable Energy Laboratory [NREL]); Dave Henderson (DOE); Gardiner Hill (BP); Bill Innes (ExxonMobil Research and Engineering); Scott Jorgensen (General Motors); Nathan Lewis (California Institute of Technology); Margaret Mann (NREL); Lowell Miller (DOE); JoAnn Milliken (DOE); Joan Ogden (Princeton University); Lynn Orr, Jr. (Stanford University); Ralph Overend (NREL); Mark Pastor (DOE); David Pimentel (Cornell University); Dan Reicher (Northern Power Systems and New Energy Capital); Neal Richter (ChevronTexaco); Jens Rostrup-Nielsen (Haldor Topsoe); Dale Simbeck (SFA Pacific); and Joseph Strakey (DOE National Energy Technology Laboratory).
The committee offers special thanks to Steve Chalk, DOE Office of Hydrogen, Fuel Cells and Infrastructure Technologies, and to Roxanne Danz, DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, for being responsive to its needs for information. In addition, the committee wishes to acknowledge Dale Simbeck and Elaine Chang, both of SFA Pacific, Inc., for providing support as consultants to the committee.
Finally, the chair gratefully recognizes the committee members and the staffs of the NRC’s Board on Energy and Environmental Systems and the NAE Program Office for their hard work in organizing and planning committee meetings and their individual efforts in gathering information and writing sections of the report.
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the NRC’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confi-
dential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report:
Allen Bard (NAS), University of Texas, Austin;
Seymour Baron (NAE), retired, Medical University of South Carolina;
Douglas Chapin (NAE), MPR Associates, Inc.;
James Corman, Energy Alternative Systems;
Francis J. DiSalvo (NAS), Cornell University;
Mildred Dresselhaus (NAE, NAS), Massachusetts Institute of Technology;
Seth Dunn, Yale School of Management, and School of Forestry & Environmental Studies;
David Friedman, Union of Concerned Scientists;
Robert Friedman, The Center for the Advancement of Genomics;
Robert D. Hall, CDG Management, Inc.;
James G. Hansel, Air Products and Chemicals, Inc.;
H.M. (Hub) Hubbard, retired, Pacific International Center for High Technology Research;
Trevor Jones (NAE), Biomec;
James R. Katzer (NAE), ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Company;
Alan Lloyd, California Air Resources Board;
John P. Longwell (NAE), retired, Massachusetts Institute of Technology;
Alden Meyer, Union of Concerned Scientists;
Robert W. Shaw, Jr., Aretê Corporation; and
Richard S. Stein, (NAS, NAE) retired, University of Massachusetts.
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen by William G. Agnew (NAE), General Motors Corporation (retired). Appointed by the National Research Council, he was responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
Contents
Tables and Figures
TABLES
3-1 |
Key “Demand Parameters” for a Light-Duty Vehicle, |
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3-2 |
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Sales in North America and Worldwide, 1997 to 2002, |
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3-3 |
Stationary Fuel Cell Systems—Typical Performance Parameters (Current), |
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3-4 |
Stationary Fuel Cell Systems—Projected Typical Performance Parameters (2020), |
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4-1 |
Estimated Cost of Elements for Transportation, Distribution, and Off-Board Storage of Hydrogen for Fuel Cell Vehicles—Present and Future, |
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4-2 |
Goals for Hydrogen On-Board Storage to Achieve Minimum Practical Vehicle Driving Ranges, |
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5-1 |
Combinations of Feedstock or Energy Source and Scale of Hydrogen Production Examined in the Committee’s Analysis, |
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5-2 |
Hydrogen Supply Chain Pathways Examined, |
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5-3 |
Sensitivity of Results of Cost Analysis for Hydrogen Production Pathways to Various Parameter Values, |
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7-1 |
Estimated Carbon Emissions as Carbon Dioxide Associated with Central Station Hydrogen Production from Natural Gas and Coal, |
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7-2 |
Estimated Plant Production Costs and Associated Outside-Plant Carbon Costs (in dollars per kilogram of hydrogen) for Central Station Hydrogen Production from Natural Gas and Coal, |
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8-1 |
An Overview of Nuclear Hydrogen Production Options, |
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8-2 |
Results from Analysis Calculating Cost and Emissions of Hydrogen Production from Wind Energy, |
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9-1 |
Selected Properties of Hydrogen and Other Fuel Gases, |
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C-1 |
DOE Hydrogen Program Planning Levels, FY02-FY04 ($000), |
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E-1 |
Hydrogen Supply Chain Pathways Examined, |
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E-2 |
Central Plant Summary of Results, |
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E-3 |
Central Hydrogen Plant Summary of Inputs, |
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E-4 |
CS Size Hydrogen Steam Reforming of Natural Gas with Current Technology, |
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E-5 |
CS Size Hydrogen via Steam Reforming of Natural Gas with Future Optimism, |
E-6 |
CS Size Hydrogen via Steam Reforming of Natural Gas Plus CO2 Capture with Current Technology, |
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E-7 |
CS Size Hydrogen via Steam Reforming of Natural Gas Plus CO2 Capture with Future Optimism, |
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E-8 |
CS Size Hydrogen via Coal Gasification with Current Technology, |
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E-9 |
CS Size Hydrogen via Coal Gasification with Future Technology, |
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E-10 |
CS Size Hydrogen via Coal Gasification with CO2 Capture with Current Technology, |
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E-11 |
CS Size Hydrogen via Coal Gasification Plus CO2 Capture with Future Optimism, |
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E-12 |
CS Size Hydrogen via Nuclear Thermal Splitting of Water with Future Optimism, |
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E-13 |
Gaseous Hydrogen Distributed via Pipeline with Current Technology and Regulations, |
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E-14 |
Gaseous Hydrogen Distributed via Pipeline with Future Optimism, |
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E-15 |
Gaseous Pipeline Hydrogen-Based Fueling Stations with Current Technology, |
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E-16 |
Gaseous Pipeline Hydrogen-Based Fueling Stations with Future Optimism, |
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E-17 |
Midsize Plants Summary of Results, |
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E-18 |
Midsize Hydrogen Plant Summary of Inputs and Outputs, |
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E-19 |
Midsize Hydrogen via Current Steam Methane Reforming Technology, |
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E-20 |
Midsize Hydrogen via Steam Methane Reforming with Future Optimism, |
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E-21 |
Midsize Hydrogen via Steam Methane Reforming Plus CO2 Capture with Current Technology, |
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E-22 |
Midsize Hydrogen via Steam Methane Reforming Plus CO2 Capture with Future Optimism, |
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E-23 |
Midsize Hydrogen via Current Biomass Gasification Technology, |
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E-24 |
Midsize Hydrogen via Biomass Gasification with Future Optimism, |
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E-25 |
Midsize Hydrogen via Current Biomass Gasification Technology with CO2 Capture, |
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E-26 |
Midsize Hydrogen via Biomass Gasification Technology Plus CO2 Capture with Future Optimism, |
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E-27 |
Midsize Hydrogen via Electrolysis of Water with Current Technology, |
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E-28 |
Midsize Hydrogen via Electrolysis of Water with Future Optimism, |
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E-29 |
Liquid Hydrogen Distribution via Tanker Trucks Based on Current Technology, |
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E-30 |
Liquid Hydrogen Distribution via Tanker Trucks Based on Future Optimism, |
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E-31 |
Liquid-Hydrogen-Based Fueling Stations with Current Technology, |
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E-32 |
Liquid-Hydrogen-Based Fueling Stations with Future Optimism, |
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E-33 |
Distributed Plant Summary of Results, |
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E-34 |
Distributed Plant, Onsite Hydrogen Summary of Inputs, |
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E-35 |
Distributed Size Onsite Hydrogen via Steam Reforming of Natural Gas with Current Technology, |
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E-36 |
Distributed Size Onsite Hydrogen via Steam Reforming of Natural Gas with Future Optimism, |
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E-37 |
Distributed Size Onsite Hydrogen via Electrolysis of Water with Current Technology, |
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E-38 |
Distributed Size Onsite Hydrogen via Electrolysis of Water with Future Optimism, |
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E-39 |
Distributed Size Onsite Hydrogen via Natural-Gas-Assisted Steam Electrolysis of Water with Future Optimism, |
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E-40 |
Distributed Size Onsite Hydrogen via Wind-Turbine-Based Electrolysis with Current Technology, |
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E-41 |
Distributed Size Onsite Hydrogen via Wind-Turbine-Based Electrolysis with Future Optimism, |
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E-42 |
Distributed Size Onsite Hydrogen via PV Solar-Based Electrolysis with Current Technology, |
E-43 |
Distributed Size Onsite Hydrogen via PV Solar-Based Electrolysis with Future Optimism, |
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E-44 |
Distributed Size Onsite Hydrogen via Wind Turbine/Grid Hybrid-Based Electrolysis with Current Costs, |
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E-45 |
Distributed Size Onsite Hydrogen via Wind Turbine/Grid Hybrid-Based Electrolysis with Future Optimism, |
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E-46 |
Distributed Size Onsite Hydrogen via Photovoltaics/Grid Hybrid-Based Electrolysis with Current Costs, |
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E-47 |
Distributed Size Onsite Hydrogen via PV/Grid Hybrid-Based Electrolysis with Future Optimism, |
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E-48 |
Photovoltatic Solar Power Generation Economics for Current Technology, |
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E-49 |
Photovoltatic Solar Power Generation Economics of Future Optimism, |
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F-1 |
Some Perspective on the Size of the Current Hydrogen and Gasoline Production and Distribution Systems in the United States, |
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G-1 |
Economics of Conversion of Natural Gas to Hydrogen, |
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G-2 |
U.S. Natural Gas Consumption and Methane Emissions from Operations, 1990 and 2000, |
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G-3 |
Nuclear Reactor Options and Their Power Cycle Efficiency, |
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G-4 |
An Overview of Nuclear Hydrogen Production Options, |
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G-5 |
Capital Costs of Current Electrolysis Fueler Producing 480 Kilograms of Hydrogen per Day, |
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G-6 |
All-Inclusive Cost of Hydrogen from Current Electrolysis Fueling Technology, |
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G-7 |
Cost of Hydrogen from Future Electrolysis Fueling Technology, |
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G-8 |
Results from Analysis Calculating Cost and Emissions of Hydrogen Production from Wind Energy, |
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G-9 |
Estimated Cost of Hydrogen Production for Solar Cases, |
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H-1 |
Conversion Factors, |
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H-2 |
Thermodynamic Properties of Chemicals of Interest, |
FIGURES
2-1 |
U.S. primary energy consumption, historical and projected, 1970 to 2025, |
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2-2 |
U.S. primary energy consumption, by sector, historical and projected, 1970 to 2025, |
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2-3 |
U.S. primary energy consumption, by fuel type, historical and projected, 1970 to 2025, |
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2-4 |
Total U.S. primary energy production and consumption, historical and projected, 1970 to 2025, |
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2-5 |
Carbon intensity of global primary energy consumption, 1890 to 1995, |
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2-6 |
Trends and projections in U.S. carbon emissions, by sector and by fuel, 1990 to 2025, |
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2-7 |
U.S. emissions of carbon dioxide, by sector and fuels, 2000, |
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2-8 |
Possible combinations of on-board fuels and conversion technologies for personal transportation, |
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2-9 |
Combinations of fuels and conversion technologies analyzed in this report, |
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3-1 |
Possible optimistic market scenario showing assumed fraction of hydrogen fuel cell and hybrid vehicles in the United States, 2000 to 2050, |
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5-1 |
Unit cost estimates (cost per kilogram of hydrogen) for the “current technologies” state of development for 10 hydrogen supply technologies, |
5-2 |
Cost details underlying estimates for 10 current hydrogen supply technologies in Figure 5-1, |
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5-3 |
Unit cost estimates for 11 possible future hydrogen supply technologies, including generation by dedicated nuclear plants, |
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5-4 |
Cost details underlying estimates in Figure 5-3 for 11 future hydrogen supply technologies, including generation by dedicated nuclear plants, |
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5-5 |
Unit cost estimates for four current and four possible future electrolysis technologies for the generation of hydrogen, |
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5-6 |
Unit cost estimates for three current and three possible future natural gas technologies for hydrogen generation, |
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5-7 |
Unit cost estimates for two current and two future possible coal technologies for hydrogen generation, |
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5-8 |
Unit cost estimates for two current and two possible future biomass-based technologies for hydrogen generation, |
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5-9 |
Estimates of unit atmospheric carbon release per kilogram of hydrogen produced by 10 current hydrogen supply technologies, |
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5-10 |
Estimates of unit atmospheric carbon release per kilogram of hydrogen produced by 11 future possible hydrogen supply technologies, including generation by dedicated nuclear plants, |
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5-11 |
Unit carbon emissions (kilograms of carbon per kilogram of hydrogen) versus unit costs (dollars per kilogram of hydrogen) for various hydrogen supply technologies, |
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5-12 |
Estimates of well-to-wheels energy use (for 27 miles-per-gallon conventional gasoline-fueled vehicles [CFVs]) with 10 current hydrogen supply technologies, |
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5-13 |
Estimates of well-to-wheels energy use (for 27 miles-per-gallon conventional gasoline-fueled vehicles [CFVs]) with 11 possible future hydrogen supply technologies, including generation by dedicated nuclear plants, |
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6-1 |
Demand in the optimistic vision created by the committee: postulated fraction of hydrogen, hybrid, and conventional vehicles, 2000–2050, |
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6-2 |
Postulated fuel economy based on the optimistic vision of the committee for conventional, hybrid, and hydrogen vehicles (passenger cars and light-duty trucks), 2000–2050, |
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6-3 |
Light-duty vehicular use of hydrogen, 2000–2050, based on the optimistic vision of the committee, |
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6-4 |
Gasoline use by light-duty vehicles with or without hybrid and hydrogen vehicles, 2000–2050, based on the optimistic vision of the committee, |
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6-5 |
Gasoline use cases based on the committee’s optimistic vision compared with Energy Information Administration (EIA) projections of oil supply, demand, and imports, 2000–2050, |
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6-6 |
Projections by the Energy Information Administration (EIA) of the volume of carbon releases, by sector and by fuel, in selected years from 1990 to 2025, |
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6-7 |
Estimated volume of carbon releases from passenger cars and light-duty trucks: current hydrogen production technologies (fossil fuels), 2000–2050, |
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6-8 |
Estimated volume of carbon releases from passenger cars and light-duty trucks: possible future hydrogen production technologies (fossil fuels and nuclear energy), 2000–2050, |
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6-9 |
Estimated volume of carbon releases from passenger cars and light-duty trucks: current hydrogen production technologies (electrolysis and renewables), 2000–2050, |
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6-10 |
Estimated volume of carbon releases from passenger cars and light-duty trucks: possible future hydrogen production technologies (electrolysis and renewables), 2000–2050, |
6-11 |
Estimated amounts of natural gas to generate hydrogen (current and possible future hydrogen production technologies) compared with projections by the Energy Information Administration (EIA) of natural gas supply, demand, and imports, 2010–2050, |
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6-12 |
Estimated gasoline use reductions compared with natural gas (NG) use increases: current hydrogen production technologies, 2010–2050, |
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6-13 |
Estimated gasoline use reductions compared with natural gas (NG) use increases: possible future hydrogen production technologies, 2010–2050, |
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6-14 |
Estimated amounts of coal used to generate hydrogen (current and possible future hydrogen production technologies) compared with Energy Information Administration (EIA) projections of coal production and use, 2010–2050, |
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6-15 |
Estimated land area used to grow biomass for hydrogen: current and possible future hydrogen production technologies, 2010–2050, |
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6-16 |
Estimated annual amounts of carbon dioxide sequestered from supply chain for automobiles powered by hydrogen: current hydrogen production technologies, 2010–2050, |
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6-17 |
Estimated cumulative amounts of carbon dioxide sequestered from supply chain for automobiles powered by hydrogen: current hydrogen production technologies, 2010–2050, |
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6-18 |
Estimated annual amounts of carbon dioxide sequestered from supply chain for automobiles powered by hydrogen: possible future hydrogen production technologies, 2010–2050, |
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6-19 |
Estimated cumulative amounts of carbon dioxide sequestered from supply chain for automobiles powered by hydrogen: possible future hydrogen production technologies, 2010–2050, |
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6-20 |
Estimated total annual fuel costs for automobiles: current hydrogen production technologies (fossil fuels), 2000–2050, |
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6-21 |
Estimated total annual fuel costs for light-duty vehicles: current hydrogen production technologies (electrolysis and renewables), 2000–2050, |
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6-22 |
Estimated total annual fuel costs for light-duty vehicles: possible future hydrogen production technologies (fossil fuels and nuclear energy), 2000–2050, |
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6-23 |
Estimated total annual fuel costs for light-duty vehicles: possible future hydrogen production technologies (electrolysis and renewables), 2000–2050, |
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7-1 |
Feedstocks used in the current global production of hydrogen, |
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F-1 |
World fossil energy resources, |
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F-2 |
Annual production scenarios for the mean resource estimate showing sharp and rounded peaks, 1900–2125, |
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G-1 |
Schematic representation of the steam methane reforming process, |
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G-2 |
Estimated investment costs for current and possible future hydrogen plants (with no carbon sequestration) of three sizes, |
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G-3 |
Estimated costs for conversion of natural gas to hydrogen in plants of three sizes, current and possible future cases, with and without sequestration of CO2, |
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G-4 |
Estimated effects of the price of natural gas on the cost of hydrogen at plants of three sizes using steam methane reforming, |
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G-5 |
Power cycle net efficiency (ηel) and thermal-to-hydrogen efficiency (ηH) for the gas turbine modular helium reactor (He) high-temperature electrolysis of steam (HTES) and the supercritical CO2 (S-CO2) advanced gas-cooled reactor HTES technologies, |
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G-6 |
The energy needs for hydrogen production by the gas turbine modular helium reactor (He cycle) high-temperature electrolysis of steam (HTES) and the supercritical CO2 (S-CO2 cycle) advanced gas-cooled reactor HTES technologies, |
G-7 |
Depiction of the most promising sulfur thermochemical cycles for water splitting, |
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G-8 |
Estimated thermal-to-hydrogen efficiency (ηH) of the sulfur-iodine (SI) process and thermal energy required to produce a kilogram of hydrogen from the modular high-temperature reactor-SI technology, |
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G-9 |
Electrolysis cell stack energy consumption as a function of cell stack current density, |
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G-10 |
Sensitivity of the cost of hydrogen from distributed electrolysis to the price of input electricity, |
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G-11 |
Wind generating capacity, 1981–2002, world and U.S. totals, |
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G-12 |
Hydrogen from wind power availability, |
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G-13 |
Efficiency of biological conversion of solar energy, |
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G-14 |
Geographic distribution of projected bioenergy crop plantings on all acres in 2008 in the production management scenario, |
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G-15 |
Best research cell efficiencies for multijunction concentrator, thin-film, crystalline silicon, and emerging photovoltaic technologies, |