TECHNOLOGIES AND APPROACHES TO REDUCING THE FUEL CONSUMPTION OF MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLES
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
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COMMITTEE TO ASSESS FUEL ECONOMY TECHNOLOGIES FOR MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLES
ANDREW BROWN, JR., Chair,
NAE, Delphi Corporation
DENNIS N. ASSANIS,
NAE, University of Michigan
ROGER BEZDEK,
Management Information Services, Inc.
NIGEL N. CLARK,
West Virginia University
THOMAS M. CORSI,
University of Maryland
DUKE DRINKARD,
Southeastern Freight Lines
DAVID E. FOSTER,
University of Wisconsin
ROGER D. FRUECHTE, Consultant
RON GRAVES,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
GARRICK HU, Consultant
JOHN H. JOHNSON,
Michigan Technological University
DREW KODJAK,
International Council on Clean Transportation
DAVID F. MERRION,
Detroit Diesel (retired)
THOMAS E. REINHART,
Southwest Research Institute
AYMERIC P. ROUSSEAU,
Argonne National Laboratory
CHARLES K. SALTER, Consultant
JAMES J. WINEBRAKE,
Rochester Institute of Technology
JOHN WOODROOFFE,
University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute
MARTIN B. ZIMMERMAN,
University of Michigan
Staff
DUNCAN BROWN, Study Director
DANA CAINES, Financial Associate
LANITA JONES, Administrative Coordinator
JOSEPH MORRIS, Senior Program Officer,
Transportation Research Board
JASON ORTEGO, Senior Program Assistant (until December 2009)
MADELINE WOODRUFF, Senior Program Officer
E. JONATHAN YANGER, Senior Project Assistant
JAMES J. ZUCCHETTO, Director,
Board on Energy and Environmental Systems
BOARD ON ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
DOUGLAS CHAPIN, Chair,
NAE,1 MPR Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia
RAKESH AGRAWAL,
NAE, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
WILLIAM BANHOLZER,
NAE, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan
ANDREW BROWN, JR.,
NAE, Delphi Technologies, Troy, Michigan
MARILYN BROWN,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
MICHAEL CORRADINI,
NAE, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin
PAUL DECOTIS,
Long Island Power Authority, Long Island, NY
E. LINN DRAPER, JR.,
NAE, American Electric Power, Lampasas, Texas
CHRISTINE EHLIG-ECONOMIDES,
NAE, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
WILLIAM FRIEND,
NAE, University of California Presidents Council on National Laboratories, Washington, DC
SHERRI GOODMAN,
CNA, Alexandria, Virginia
NARAIN HINGORANI,
NAE,
Independent Consultant,
Los Altos Hills, California
MICHAEL OPPENHEIMER,
Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
MICHAEL RAMAGE,
NAE, ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Company (retired), Moorestown, New Jersey
DAN REICHER,
Google.org, Warren, Vermont
BERNARD ROBERTSON,
NAE, Daimler-Chrysler (retired), Bloomfield Hills, Michigan
MAXINE SAVITZ,
NAE, Honeywell, Inc. (retired), Los Angeles, California
MARK THIEMENS,
NAS,2 University of California, San Diego
RICHARD WHITE,
Oppenheimer’s Private Equity & Special Products, New York, NY
Staff
JAMES J. ZUCCHETTO, Director,
Board on Energy and Environmental Systems
DUNCAN BROWN, Senior Program Officer
DANA CAINES, Financial Associate
ALAN CRANE, Senior Program Officer
K. JOHN HOLMES, Senior Program Officer
LANITA JONES, Administrative Coordinator
MADELINE WOODRUFF, Senior Program Officer
E. JONATHAN YANGER, Senior Project Assistant
Acknowledgments
The Committee to Assess Fuel Economy Technologies for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles is grateful to all of the company, agency, industry, association, and national laboratory representatives who contributed significantly of their time and efforts to this National Research Council (NRC) study, either by giving presentations at meetings or by responding to committee requests for information.
We acknowledge the valuable contributions of individuals and organizations that provided information and made presentations at our meetings, as listed in Appendix B. We especially recognize the organizations that hosted site visits for the committee’s work as outlined in Chapter 1.
The committee was aided by consultants in various roles who provided analyses to the committee, which it used in addition to other sources of information. Special recognition is afforded the TIAX team of Michael Jackson, Matthew Kromer, and Wendy Bockholt; and the Argonne National Laboratory team of Aymeric Rousseau, Antoine Delorme, Dominik Karbowski, and Ram Vijayagopal.
We wish to recognize the committee members for taking on this daunting charter and accomplishing it on schedule within tight budget requirements. The staff of the NRC Board on Energy and Environmental Systems has been exceptional in organizing and planning meetings, gathering information, and drafting sections of the report. Duncan Brown, Dana Caines, LaNita Jones, Joseph Morris, Jason Ortego, Jonathan Yanger, and James Zucchetto have done an outstanding job of facilitating the work of the committee and providing their knowledge and experience to help the committee in its deliberations. Lastly, the committee chair expresses his personal appreciation to Lori Motley, Delphi executive assistant, for her administrative support provided to this overall effort.
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the NRC’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process.
We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report:
Paul Blumberg, Consultant
Fred Browand, University of Southern California
Douglas Chapin, MPR Associates, Inc.
Robert Clarke, Truck Manufacturers Association
Coralie Cooper, Northeast States for Coordinated Air Management
Joe Fleming, Consultant
Winston Harrington, Resources for the Future
John Heywood, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Larry Howell, General Motors (retired)
Thomas Jahns, University of Wisconsin
James Kirtley, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Priyaranjan Prasad, Ford Motor Company (retired)
Mike Roeth, Consultant
Russell Truemner, AVL Powertrain Engineering, Inc.
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Elisabeth Drake, NAE, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (retired). Appointed by the NRC, she was responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
Andrew Brown, Jr., Chair
Committee to Assess Fuel Economy Technologies for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles
Tables and Figures
TABLES
S-1 |
Range of Fuel Consumption Reduction Potential, 2015-2020, for Power Train Technologies, |
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S-2 |
Range of Fuel Consumption Reduction Potential, 2015-2020, for Vehicle Technologies, |
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S-3 |
Fuel Consumption Reduction Potential for Typical New Vehicles, 2015-2020, and Cost-Effectiveness Comparisons for Seven Vehicle Configurations, |
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2-1 |
Comparing Light-Duty Vehicles with Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles, |
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2-2 |
Product Ranges of U.S. Heavy-Duty Vehicle Manufacturers, |
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2-3 |
Top 10 Commercial Fleets in North America, |
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2-4 |
Top 10 Transit Bus Fleets in the United States and Canada, |
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2-5 |
Top 10 Motor Coach Operators, 2008, United States and Canada, |
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2-6 |
Medium- and Heavy-Duty-Vehicle Sales by Calendar Year, |
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2-7 |
Truck Sales, by Manufacturer, 2004-2008, |
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2-8 |
Engines Manufactured for Class 2b Through Class 8 Trucks, 2004-2008, |
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2-9 |
Vehicle, Engine, and Cycle Variables, |
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2-10 |
Validation, Accuracy, and Precision, |
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2-11 |
Characteristics of Selected Cycles, |
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3-1 |
Fuel Economy Vehicle Testing, |
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3-2 |
Stopping Distance Requirements by FMCSS 121 Regulation, |
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4-1 |
Diesel Engine Fuel Consumption (percentage) by Years and Applications, |
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4-2 |
Technologies for Fuel Consumption Reduction Applicable to Gasoline-Powered Engines for the Medium-Duty Vehicle Class and the Estimated Fuel Consumption Reduction and Incremental Costs, |
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4-3 |
Diesel Truck Sales as a Percentage of Total Truck Sales, |
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4-4 |
TIAX Summary of Transmission and Driveline Potential Fuel Consumption Reduction (percentage) by Range of Years and by Application, |
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4-5 |
Different Vehicle Architectures, Their Status as of Today and Primary Applications, |
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4-6 |
Production-Intent Medium-Duty and Heavy-Duty HEV Systems, No ePTO, |
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4-7 |
Hybrid Technology, Benefits and Added Weight for Class 3 to Class 6 Box Trucks, |
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4-8 |
Hybrid Technology, Benefits and Added Weight for Class 3 to Class 6 Bucket Trucks, |
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4-9 |
Hybrid Technology, Benefits and Added Weight for Refuse Haulers, |
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4-10 |
Hybrid Technology, Benefits and Added Weight for Transit Buses, |
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4-11 |
Characteristics of Primary Drive Cycles, |
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4-12 |
Profiles of Primary Drive Cycles, |
4-13 |
Fuel Economy and Exhaust Emissions of Hybrid Electric Transit Bus with Various Control Strategies, Taipei City Bus Cycle, |
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4-14 |
Predicted Fuel Consumption Comparison: Conventional (non-hybrid), Dynamic Programming (DP), Rule-Based (RB), |
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4-15 |
Hybrid Fuel Consumption Reduction Potential (percentage) Compared to a Baseline Vehicle Without a Hybrid Power Train, by Range of Years and Application, |
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4-16 |
Estimated Fuel Consumption Reduction Potential for Hybrid Power Trains, |
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5-1 |
Energy Balance for a Fully Loaded Class 8 Vehicle Operating on a Level Road at 65 mph for One Hour, |
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5-2 |
Energy Balance for a Fully Loaded Class 3 to Class 6 Medium-Duty Truck (26,000 lb) Operating on a Level Road at 40 mph for One Hour, |
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5-3 |
Energy Balance for a 40-ft Transit Bus Operating over the Central Business District Cycle for One Hour, |
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5-4 |
Operational Losses from Class 8 Tractor with Sleeper Cab-Van Trailer at 65 mph and GVW of 80,000 lb, |
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5-5 |
Class 8 Tractor Aerodynamics Technologies, Considering the 2012 Time Frame, |
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5-6 |
Current Van Trailer Aero-Component Performance, |
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5-7 |
Florida Trailer Population by Body Style, |
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5-8 |
Motor Coach—Applicable Aerodynamic Technologies, |
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5-9 |
Class 2b Van and Pickup—Applicable Aerodynamic Technologies, |
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5-10 |
Aerodynamic-Related Fuel Consumption Reduction Packages by Sector and by Time Frame, |
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5-11 |
Examples of Power Requirement for Selected Auxiliary Loads, |
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5-12 |
Auxiliary Use for Line-Haul Duty Cycles, |
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5-13 |
Results of Truck Model Showing Effect of Coefficient of Rolling Resistance, Crr, on Fuel Economy for Several Drive Cycles, |
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5-14 |
Rolling Resistance Fuel Consumption Reduction Potential by Class, |
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5-15 |
Typical Weights of Trucks, Empty Versus Gross Weight, |
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5-16 |
Summary of Impacts of Weight on Fuel Consumption of Trucks by Class, |
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5-17 |
Summary of Weight-Reduction Estimates and Weight-Increase Offsets, |
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5-18 |
Weight-Reduction-Related Fuel Consumption Reduction Potential (percentage) by Class, |
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5-19 |
Comparison of Automatic Shutdown/Startup Systems, |
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5-20 |
Idling-Reduction Technologies, |
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5-21 |
Comparison of Fuel-Operated Heaters, |
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5-22 |
Comparison of Auxiliary Power Units, |
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5-23 |
Comparison of Truck Stop Electrification Systems, |
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5-24 |
Comparison of Idle Reduction Systems, |
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6-1 |
Technologies and Vehicle Classes Likely to See Benefits, |
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6-2 |
Fuel Consumption Reduction (percentage) by Application and Vehicle Type, |
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6-3 |
Idle-Reduction Packages, |
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6-4 |
Technology for Class 8 Tractor Trailers in the 2015-2020 Time Frame, |
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6-5 |
Tractor Trailers Benefit from Advances in Every Technology Category, |
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6-6 |
Straight Box Truck Aerodynamic Technologies, |
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6-7 |
Class 3 to Class 6 Straight Box Truck with 2015-2020 Technology Package, |
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6-8 |
Class 3 to Class 6 Bucket Truck with 2015-2020 Technology Package, |
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6-9 |
Class 2b Pickups and Vans with 2015-2020 Technology Package, |
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6-10 |
Class 8 Refuse Packer with a Hydraulic Hybrid System, 2015-2020, |
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6-11 |
Transit Bus Tire and Wheel Technologies, |
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6-12 |
Driveline and Transmission Strategies for Transit Buses, |
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6-13 |
Weight Reduction Cost and Benefit for Transit Buses, |
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6-14 |
Results for Urban Transit Buses—Selected Sources, |
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6-15 |
Hybrid Technology Cost and Benefits for Transit Buses, |
6-16 |
Urban Transit Buses Can Benefit from Hybridization and from Weight Reduction, |
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6-17 |
Motor Coaches Benefit from Aerodynamics and from Engine Improvements, including Waste-Heat Recovery, |
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6-18 |
Fuel Consumption Improvement, Cost, and CCPPR, 2015-2020 Vehicle Technology, |
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6-19 |
Fuel Consumption Improvement, Cost, and Cost-Effectiveness, 2013-2015 Vehicle Technology, |
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6-20 |
Fuel Consumption Reduction Potential for Typical New Vehicles, 2015-2020, and Cost-Effectiveness Comparisons for Seven Vehicle Configurations, |
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6-21 |
Motor Carrier Marginal Expenses, |
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6-22 |
Incremental Operations and Maintenance Costs, |
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6-23 |
Fuel Efficiency Technology Versus NOx Emissions Trade-off, |
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6-24 |
Estimated Costs for Crashes Involving Truck Tractor with One Trailer, 2006, |
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6-25 |
Summary of Potential Fuel Consumption Reduction, Cost, and Cost-Benefit, |
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7-1 |
Some Illustrative Projections of Fuel Consumption Savings, |
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8-1 |
Mileage and Fuel Consumption by Vehicle Weight Class, |
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8-2 |
Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Choice of Regulated Party, |
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8-3 |
Options for Certification of Heavy-Duty Vehicles to a Standard, |
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E-1 |
Gross Vehicle Weight Groups, |
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E-2 |
Average Payload (lb) by Commodities and Gross Vehicle Weight Group VIUS—National, |
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E-3 |
Vehicle Groups and National Average Payload (lb), |
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F-1 |
Trailer Skirt Information from Manufacturers, |
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F-2 |
Trailer Base Device Information from Manufacturers, |
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F-3 |
Trailer Face Device Information from Manufacturers, |
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G-1 |
Main Vectors for Component Models, |
FIGURES
S-1 |
Comparison of 2015-2020 new-vehicle potential fuel-saving technologies for seven vehicle types, |
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1-1 |
Energy consumption by major source end-use sector, 1949-2008, |
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1-2 |
Motor vehicle mileage, fuel consumption, and fuel rates, |
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1-3 |
U.S average payload-specific fuel consumption, |
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1-4 |
Illustrations of typical vehicle weight classes, |
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1-5 |
Total revenue of for-hire transportation services compared with total revenue of other sectors of the transportation industry, 2002, |
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2-1 |
The 25 largest private and for-hire fleets, |
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2-2 |
Fuel consumption (FC) versus fuel economy (FE), showing the effect of a 50 percent decrease in FC and a 100 percent increase in FE for various values of FE, including fuel saved over 10,000 miles, |
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2-3 |
Percentage fuel consumption (FC) decrease versus percentage fuel economy (FE) increase, |
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2-4 |
Fuel economy versus payload, |
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2-5 |
Fuel consumption versus payload, |
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2-6 |
Load-specific fuel consumption versus payload, |
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2-7 |
Energy “loss” range of vehicle attributes as impacted by duty cycle, on a level road, |
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2-8 |
The Heavy-Duty Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule, |
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2-9 |
The creep (top) and cruise (bottom) modes of the HHDDT Schedule, |
2-10 |
Central Business District segment of SAE Recommended Practice J1376, |
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2-11 |
Orange County Transit Authority cycle derived from transit bus activity data, |
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2-12 |
PSAT simulation results for steady-state operation and for selected transient test cycles for a Class 8 truck (top) and a Class 6 truck (bottom), |
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2-13 |
Standard deviation of speed changes (coefficient of variance rises) as the average speed drops for typical bus activity, |
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2-14 |
Percentage of time spent idling rises and there are more stops per unit distance as the average speed drops for typical bus activity, |
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2-15 |
Curves based on chassis dynamometer for fuel economy versus average speed for conventional and hybrid buses, |
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2-16 |
“V” diagram for software development, |
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3-1 |
Overview of simulation tool and methodology proposed for use in the European Union, |
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3-2 |
Japanese fuel economy targets for heavy-duty vehicles by weight class, |
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3-3 |
Japanese simulation method incorporating urban and interurban driving modes, |
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3-4 |
Japanese simulation method overview, |
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3-5 |
Japanese hardware-in-the-loop simulation (HILS) testing of hybrid vehicles, |
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3-6 |
EPA’s SmartWay logos, |
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3-7 |
Some of the aerodynamic technologies included in the SmartWay certification program, |
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3-8 |
FTP speed (top) and torque (bottom) from a specific engine following the transient FTP on a dynamometer, |
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4-1 |
Energy audit for a typical diesel engine, |
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4-2 |
Historical trend of heavy-duty truck engine fuel consumption as a function of NOx requirement, |
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4-3 |
Research roadmap for 49.1 percent thermal efficiency by 2016, |
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4-4 |
Research roadmap for 52.9 percent thermal efficiency by 2019, |
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4-5 |
Partitioning of the fuel energy in a gasoline-fueled engine, |
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4-6 |
Power density versus energy density of various technologies, |
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4-7 |
Series hybrid electric vehicle, |
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4-8 |
Series engine hybrid hydraulic vehicle, |
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4-9 |
Parallel hybrid electric vehicle, |
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4-10 |
Example of integrated starter generator configuration coupled through a belt, |
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4-11 |
Example of pre-transmission parallel configuration, |
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4-12 |
Example of post-transmission configuration, |
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4-13 |
Parallel hydraulic launch assist hybrid architecture, |
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4-14 |
Power-split hybrid electric vehicle, |
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4-15 |
Battery type versus specific power and energy, |
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4-16 |
Li-ion status versus targets (for power-assist HEV), |
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4-17 |
Hybrid configurations considered in ANL study, |
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4-18 |
Fuel savings with respect to conventional cycles on standard drive cycles under (left) a 50 percent load and (right) a 100 percent load, |
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4-19 |
Percentage of braking energy recovered at the wheels under (left) a 50 percent load and (right) a 100 percent load, |
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4-20 |
Percentage average engine efficiency of conventional and hybrid trucks for (left) a 50 percent load and (right) a 100 percent load on standard cycles, |
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4-21 |
HHDDT 65 cycle repeated five times with stops (left) and without stops (right), |
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4-22 |
Fuel consumption reduction due to stop removal, with respect to conventional vehicles without stops, and with respect to conventional vehicles with stops (50 percent load on the left, 100 percent load on the right), |
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4-23 |
Representation of the grades considered, |
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4-24 |
Fuel savings of hybrid trucks with respect to conventional trucks as a function of maximum grade for various hill periods; (left) 50 percent load and (right) 100 percent load, |
4-25 |
Dynamic programming process and rule extraction from the result, |
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4-26 |
Implementing dynamic programming as a rule-based algorithm in SIMULINK, |
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5-1 |
Energy balance of a fully loaded Class 8 tractor-trailer on a level road at 65 mph, representing the losses shown in Table 5-1, |
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5-2 |
University of Maryland, streamlined tractor, closed gap, three-quarter trailer skirt, full boat tail, |
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5-3 |
National Research Council of Canada: smoke pictures, cab with deflector (right), |
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5-4 |
Kenworth 1985 T600 aerodynamic tractor, |
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5-5 |
Aerodynamic sleeper tractor aerodynamic feature identification, |
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5-6 |
2009 model year Mack Pinnacle (left) and Freightliner Cascadia (right) SmartWay specification trucks, |
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5-7 |
Aerodynamic and tire power losses for tractor-van trailer combination, |
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5-8 |
Tractor-trailer combination truck showing aerodynamic losses and areas of energy-saving opportunities, |
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5-9 |
Volvo full sleeper cab (left) and day cab (right), |
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5-10 |
Peterbilt Traditional Model 389 (left) and Aerodynamic Model 387 2 (right) (SmartWay), |
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5-11 |
ATDynamics trailer tail (left) and FreightWing trailer skirt (right), |
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5-12 |
Nose cone trailer “eyebrow,” |
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5-13 |
Laydon vortex stabilizer (left) and nose fairing (right), |
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5-14 |
Trailer bogie cover, |
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5-15 |
Summary of trailer aerodynamic device fuel consumption reduction, |
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5-16 |
Drag coefficient for aerodynamic tractor with single or double trailers, |
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5-17 |
Laydon double trailer arrangement with trailer skirts and vortex stabilizers on both trailers, |
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5-18 |
Refrigerated van trailer with Freight Wing skirts, |
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5-19 |
Freight Wing skirts on flatbed trailer, |
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5-20 |
New 40-ft-long container built by TRS Containers (left) and container chassis (right), |
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5-21 |
Container chassis with Freight Wing trailer skirt, |
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5-22 |
Tank trailer with Freight Wing skirts, |
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5-23 |
Sturdy-Lite curtain side design for flatbed trailers, |
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5-24 |
Walmart’s 2008 low fuel consumption tractor trailer, |
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5-25 |
Mack truck with aerodynamic device combination, |
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5-26 |
Nose Cone fairing on face of straight truck, |
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5-27 |
Laydon skirt on straight truck, |
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5-28 |
Rolling resistance technology, 1910-2002, |
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5-29 |
New-generation wide-base single tire (right) to reduce the rolling resistance of conventional dual tires (left), |
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5-30 |
Example rolling resistance coefficients for heavy-duty truck tires, |
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5-31 |
Tractor-trailer tandem-axle misalignment conditions, |
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5-32 |
Weight distribution of major component categories in Class 8 tractors, |
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5-33 |
Typical weights of specific components in Class 8 sleeper tractors, |
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5-34 |
Truck weight distribution, |
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5-35 |
Truck weight distribution from 2008 weigh-in-motion, |
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5-36 |
Truck weight versus trip frequency for six trucks of a single fleet operator, |
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5-37 |
Effect of weight on truck fuel economy for a monitored fleet of six trucks with combination of dual and wide single tires for a variety of drive routes, |
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5-38 |
Weight reduction opportunities with aluminum, |
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6-1 |
Comparison of 2015-2020 new-vehicle potential fuel-saving technologies for seven vehicle types, |
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6-2 |
New retail Class 8 truck sales, 1990-2007, |
7-1 |
Five-axle tractor-semi vehicle-miles traveled by operating weight (cumulative percentage), |
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7-2 |
U.S. national ITS architecture, |
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7-3 |
Example of truck-only lanes, |
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7-4 |
Concept for reducing the need for additional road right-of-way, |
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7-5 |
Elevated truck lanes, |
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8-1 |
Shared responsibility for major elements that affect heavy-duty-vehicle fuel efficiency, |
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8-2 |
Illustration of diversity of trailer and power unit (tractor) options, |
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8-3 |
Identical tractors used to pull trailers of different mass capacity but identical volume capacity, |
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8-4 |
CIL test of a hybrid vehicle power train to determine vehicle fuel consumption on a specific test route, |
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8-2-1 |
Identical GVW rated straight trucks for high- and low-density commodities, |
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8-2-2 |
Options for performance metrics, |
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E-1 |
Fuel consumption (FC) versus fuel economy (FE) (upper half of figure) and slope of FC/FE curve (lower half of figure), |
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G-1 |
Vehicle modeling tool requirements, |
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G-2 |
Different nomenclatures within each company currently make model exchange very difficult, |
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H-1 |
V diagram for software development, |
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H-2 |
Different levels of modeling required throughout the model-based design process, |
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H-3 |
Simulation, |
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H-4 |
Rapid control prototyping, |
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H-5 |
On-target rapid prototyping, |
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H-6 |
Production code generation, |
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H-7 |
Software-in-the-loop, |
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H-8 |
Processor-in-the-loop, |
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H-9 |
Hardware-in-the-loop, |
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H-10 |
Engine on dynamometer, |
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H-11 |
Battery connected to a DC power source, |
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H-12 |
Several components in the loop—MATT example, |
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H-13 |
Mixing components hardware and software—MATT example, |
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H-14 |
Example of potential process use, |
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H-15 |
Mean particulate matter results with two standard deviation error bars, |
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H-16 |
Main phases requiring standardized processes, |