Index
A
Acoustic quantification. See Cardiac imaging
Advanced Technology Program. See National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 24
American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering, 11
Anger, Hal, 146
Aronson, Raphael, 47
Atomic Energy Commission
regulation of radiopharmaceuticals, 146
See also Regulation
B
Baird, Logie, 71
Bayh-Dole Patent and Trademark Laws Amendment, 32, 34.
See also Intellectual property;
Legislation, federal;
Patent Office, U.S.
Bessis, M. C., 56
Biochemistry
interdisciplinary nature of, 174-175, 181-182
Biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector, 11, 19, 26
acquisitions and mergers in, 194, 211
collaboration among firms, 188, 192-193, 196-197
cooperation among specialists, 4
federally sponsored research in, 190-191
Harvard University, partial ownership of biotechnology firms in, 34
integration by large firms and, 193-197, 202
minority participation in, 194
networks and, 188
new biology and, 213-215
R&D investments, 24-28, 28, 196
small firms, 190-195, 198, 201-202
specialization and, 188-189
strengthening, 34
transaction-cost economics and, 195-196, 199
undesirability of collaboration, 199-201
See also University-industry interactions
Black, Sir James, 214-215
Boston Consulting Group (BGC), 25
Boyer, Herbert, 160, 162, 164, 184
Boyle, W. S., 78
Bray, 97
Broome, 171
C
Cameron, William J., 70
Campbell, Charles J., 48-50, 52
Cardiac imaging
acoustic quantification, 152-153
color flow, 153-154
diagnostic effectiveness of, 137
echocardiography, 129-138
innovation process and, 126, 141
nuclear cardiology, 127-128, 130-138
overview, 126-127
prototype for, 133-134
Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography, 150-151
Tc-99 sestamibi tracer, 148-149
thallium imaging, 146-148
transesophageal echocardiography (TEE), 151-152
Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology, and Government, 22
Children
cochlear implants in, 113, 118
See also Cochlear implants
Chorimac. See Cochlear implants
Chouard, C. H., 110-113, 118-119
Clemens, 83
Clinical trials
cardiac imaging and, 137-138, 140-141
case study approach, 146-154, 209
cochlear implantation and, 99-101, 104-106, 108
experimental versus, 117-121
laser use in optical surgery and, 50
role in innovation of, 215
Cloning
See Gene-splicing; Insulin
Cochlear implants
Chorimac, 113
clinical versus experimental, 119-121
debate, 108-110
external power source, 113-115
industrial interest, 116
microphonic potential and electrical stimulation, 97-102
otologically respectable, 116
patterns of collaboration and R&D strategies, 12, 97-124
single- and multi-channel, 106-108, 110
See also Children;
Deafness
Cohen, Stanley, 160
Color flow. See Cardiac imaging
Complimentary DNA (cNDA). See Insulin
Contraception. See Endoscopy, gynecological applications
Coulson, A. R., 161
Crick, 159
D
Davis, H., 98
Davison, Alan, 149
Deafness
See also Cochlear implants
Dearman, James R., 56
Decker, 79
Diabetic retinopathy, 53-54.
See also Insulin
Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 191
Dual-use technology development, 23
See also Financing of research and development
E
E. coli bacteria. See Insulin
Echocardiography. See Cardiac imaging
Einstein, Albert, 42
Elion, Gertrude, 214-215
Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), 77
Endoscopy
bile duct stones and, 77
cholecystectomy, 87-88
colonoscopy and, 76-78
device manufacturers and, 73-75, 89-90
early history, 68-69
fiber optics and, 71-78
gastrointestinal, 70-76
gynecological applications, 78-84
insulation of, 73
interdisciplinary nature, 69, 90-93
Minimally Invasive Therapy and, 67-68
reusable devices, 90
television and, 81-83
video and, 84
See also Laparoscope, The;
Minimally Invasive Surgery (MIS);
Minimally Invasive Therapy (MIT)
Ethnocardiography
description, 129
See also Cardiac imaging
F
Federal Technology Transfer Act, 32-33
See also Intellectual property;
Legislation, federal
Fiber optics
originator, 51
See also Endoscopy
Filipi, 84
Financing of research and development
chronic diseases and, 25
federal, 15, 17-22, 33, 35, 55
funders and, 16
medical devices and, 19
national goals and, 22
nonprofit, 16-17
private, 17, 24-30, 169-171, 176, 178-179, 211-212
state and local, 16
tax credits and, 24
See also Dual-use technology development
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
cardiac imaging approvals, 149
combination products, 4n1, 215
early approval of medicines and vaccines by, 29, 215
insulin approval by, 173
licensing of medical devices, 58
regulation of radiopharmaceuticals, 146
regulations harmful to small biotech firms, 201-202
See also Regulation
Fourcin, 114-115
Fox, Renee, 119
Frangenheim, 79
Fugain, Claude, 111
G
Gastroscopy, 70
Genetic engineering. See Insulin
Gene-splicing, 160
components of, 164
moratorium on research, 161
See also Insulin
Gene synthesis, 161-162, 167, 169, 181
See also Insulin
General Accounting Office (GAO), 32, 34
Genetic engineering, 159.
See also Insulin
Gilbert, Walter, 161-163, 167-168, 171, 174, 176, 177, 179-180, 182-183
Goldman, Leon, 54-56
Goodman, Howard, 162-163, 167-168, 171, 173-174, 179-180
Gordon, Eugene, 52-53
Gordon, James P., 43
Gynecological laparoscopy. See Endoscopy
H
Ham, William, Jr., 47
Haubrich, William, 74-75
Health care reform
clinical tests and, 141-142
managed care and, 209.
See also Financing of research and development
marketplace pressures on research and, 212
supply and demand in, 34
Health Care Financing Administration, 58
Health Care Technology Institute, 28
Helmholtz, 97
Heyneker, Herb, 168
Hirshchowitz, Basil, 72-74, 76, 90
Hitchings, George, 214-215
House, William, 99-100, 102-103, 105-106, 109-111, 116-120, 122
Hulka, 83
Huygens, Christiaan, 71
I
Innovation
barriers to, 138-142
cost-containment and, 141, 158, 212
environment conducive to, 140-144
historical view of, 6
interorganizational fields and, 104
linear model of, 3
medical definition of, 125
process defined, 56, 67, 130-138
surgical procedures and, 212
technological feasibility and, 131-133
See also Biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector;
Organic chemistry;
University-industry interactions
Insight and Industry, 104
Institutional boundaries. See University-industry interactions
Insulin
chromosonal gene and, 170, 173
complimentary DNA (cDNA), 165, 168-169, 181, 184
E. coli bacteria, 157, 162-163, 165-166, 168, 173
gel electrophoresis, 161
gene-splicing for, 160-161, 164, 166, 173, 183, 220
Humulin (synthetic insulin), 173
messenger RNA, 165
production of, 172
recombinant DNA, 158, 164-166, 168, 173, 175, 178-179, 183-184, 189
synthetic insulin, 157
See also Gene-splicing;
Gene synthesis
Intellectual property
acquisition of biotech firms and, 203
adaptations needed in, 203
biotechnology firms and universities, licenses between, 194
DNA patent, 34
gynecological laparoscopy, 80
laser patent, 44-45
licensing agreements, growth of, 10-11
life forms, 191
medical devices less protectable as, 57-58
property rights and, 181, 191-192
public versus proprietary, 219-220
publicly developed technology, 219-220
technology transfer and, 32-34
scientific findings, 220
See also Bayh-Dole Patent and Trademark Laws Amendment;
Patent Office, U.S.;
Research contracts and agreements
Interdisciplinary research
clinicians and engineers in, 139-140, 142
insulin production and, 173-176
multidisciplinary professionals and their role in, 144, 176
Itakura, Keiichi, 167, 168, 175, 181
J
Joint Services Electronics Program (JSEP), 42-43.
See also Lasers
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 55
K
Kafatos, Fotis, 168
Kapany, Narinder, 48, 51, 72-73, 76, 91
Koester, Charles, 48, 52-53, 55
L
L'Esperance, Francis, 46, 52-53
La Nouvelle Presse Medical, 111
Labuda, Edward, 52-53
Lancet, 74
Langenbuch, Carl, 85
Laparoscope, The, 111-112.
See also Endoscopy
Laser Focus/Electro-Optics, 54-55, 56, 61
Lasers
argon, 52-53
armed forces research on, 42-43, 47-48, 55-56
blue-green, 52
dentistry, 56
medical conferences, and laser research, 56
medical effectiveness, 59
medical market, 57-62
medical schools, 61-62
patent for, 44
photocoagulator, 41, 45-47, 49-52
retinal damage, 46-47
ruby, 52-55
Leibowitz, Elliot, 146
Legislation, federal, 30
See also Bayh-Dole Patent and Trademark Laws Amendment;
Federal TechnologyTransfer Act;
Stevenson-Wydler Technology Transfer Act;
Waxman-Hatchv Act
Lehrbuch und Atlas der Gastroskopie, 70
Licensing agreements. See Intellectual property
Lithotriptor, and university-industry interactions, 7.
See also University-industry interactions
Litwin, Capt. Martin S., 56
Liu, Ig, 51
Loeb, Gerald, 110
M
MacLeod, Patrick, 110-111
Magnin, Paul, 154
Managed care. See Health care reform
Maxam, Allan, 161
Maser. See Lasers
McGuff, Paul E., 56
Medical device sector, 7, 11, 19, 28
1976 Medical Device Amendments, 58
cardiac imaging and, 131
endoscopic device competition in, 89-94
fiberscope and, 73-74
heterogeneous range of devices, 4
laser R&D, 55-62
manufacturing by, 136
marketing by, 135
photocoagulator R&D and, 50-53
prototype development, 133-135
R&D spending, 211-212
small firms, 11
strengthening of, 34
See also Financing of research and development;
Medical schools;
University-industry interactions
Medical schools, 175
medical device innovation, 78
See also Medical device sector;
Training
Medicare
European payment system differences, 88
payment system for, 69
reimbursement for endoscopic procedures by, 87
See also Health care reform
Messenger RNA. See Insulin
Meyer-Schwickerath, Gerd, 46, 49
Michelson, Robin, 103, 105, 107, 110, 117, 120
Minimally Invasive Surgery (MIS)
and cost-effectiveness, 60
See also Endoscopy
Minimally Invasive Therapy (MIT)
endoscope's role in, 67-68
See also Endoscopy
Minton, John P., 56
Molecular biology
biotechnology and, 189-190
double helix DNA structure, 159, 189
gene-splicing, 160-161
interdisciplinary role, 174-175, 181-182
Mouret, Philippe, 86
N
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 33
National Cancer Institute
competition for appropriations and, 20
laser research, 56
See also National Institutes of Health (NIH)
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 49, 51, 55
appropriations to, 17-20
cochlear implant support, 102, 106, 110, 119
compared to industry grants, 30
gene-splicing regulations by, 162, 164, 166
laser research focus, 57
national goals and, 22-24
Stevenson-Wydler and Bayh-Dole Acts and, 32-33
National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Blindness, 52
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 22
Advanced Technology Program (ATP) and, 23
National Technology Transfer Center (NTTC), 33
New biotechnology firms. See Biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector
New England Journal of Medicine, 85
Nonprofit institutions. See Financing of research and development
Nuclear cardiology. See Cardiac imaging
O
Ontology, See Cochlear implants
Organic chemistry
interdisciplinary role of, 175
See also Innovation
Overholt, Bergein, 76
P
Patent Office, U.S.
lack of scientific information, 220
See also Intellectual Property
Patents. See Intellectual Property
Pharmaceutical companies. See Biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector
Pharmaceutical Manufacturer's Association (PMA), 24-25
Proceedings of the Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers, 45
Public Health Service, 52, 54, 76-77
R
Ratz, John L., 54
Recombinant DNA (rDNA). See Insulin
Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee (RAC), 166, 168, 170, 178, 181
See also National Institutes of Health (NIH)
Reemstma, K., 85
Regulation
clinical tests and, 191-192
European, 88
moratorium on gene-splicing, 161
New York State, 89
See also Atomic Energy Commission;
Food and Drug Administration (FDA);
National Institutes of Health (NIH);
Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee (RAC)
Research and development. See Innovation
Research contracts and agreements, 11, 35, 173, 193, 195
See also Financing of research and development;
Intellectual property
Reverse transcriptase, 165.
See also Insulin
Richardson, Powell, 148
Rioux, 83
Rutter, William, 162-163, 167-168, 171, 173, 176-177, 179-181
S
Sanger, Frederick, 161
Schawlow, Arthur, 44-45
Schindler, Rudolf, 70-72
Science, 47-48, 101-102, 166, 169, 220
Science-based industries
contributions to medical innovation, 213
new biology, 213
See also Biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector;
Medical device sector
Science--the Endless Frontier, 17
Science in the National Interest, 35
Secretion of protein, 169
Seeberg, Peter, 171
Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography. See Cardiac imaging
Shinya, Hiromi, 77
Simmons, Blair, 100, 102-103, 105-110, 115, 117, 119, 122
Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR), 23-24
Small Business Technology Transfer Program (SBTT), 23-24
Smith, G. E., 78
Solon, Leonard, 47
Somatosatin
See also Insulin
Sooy, Francis, 110
Speech
coding and recognition, 101, 105-109, 111, 113, 115
See also Cochlear implants
Steptoe, P., 79
perception tests, 115
Stevenson-Wydler Technology Transfer Act, 32, 34.
See also Intellectual property;
Legislation, federal
Streifeneder, Louis, 71
Synthetic insulin. See Insulin
T
Tax policy, 24.
See also Financing of research and development