TABLE A3-1 In Vitro Assays of Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure and Genotoxicity
Study |
Cell Type |
Exposure Characteristics |
Electric-Field Strength of Culture Media |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Hungate et al. 1979 |
Salmonella TA100 or TA98 exposed 20 hr in liquid nutrient broth suspension |
200-800 kV/m electric field in air |
Cannot be determined from report |
Mutation |
1.5-3-fold increase in mutation frequency in TA100 at 800,000 V/m |
Moore 1979 |
Salmonella TA98 and TA100 tester strains exposed during growth in nutrient broth for 5-24 hr |
0.3-Hz triangular magnetic field at 0.015 and 0.03 T |
Induced electric field cannot reliably be estimated from report |
Reverent assay |
No significant effects observed |
Wolff et al. 1980 |
CHO cells exposed 4 hr (SCEs) or 13 hr (chromosomal aberration) |
NMR gradient field; 1.82 pulses/sec, 4.6 T/sec; coexposed 0.352-T static magnetic field and 5-mW/cm2 magnetic field at 15 MHz |
Cannot be determined from report |
Chromosomal aberrations and SCEs |
No significant effects observed |
Wolff et al. 1980 |
CHO cells exposed 4 hr (SCEs) or 13 hr, 40 min (chromosomal aberration) |
0.35 T plus coexposure to RF field at 15 MHz, 5 mW/cm2 and time-varying magnetic-field changes at 4.6 T/sec and 1.82 T/sec |
0 |
Chromosomal aberrations and SCEs |
No significant effects observed |
Cooke and Morris 1981 |
Human lymphocytes exposed 1 hr |
0.5-1.0 T |
0 |
Chromosomal aberrations and SCEs |
No significant effects observed |
Thomas and Morris 1981 |
E. coli AB1157 exposed 5 hr (agar plates) |
1.0 R ± coexposure to RF field at 1 mW/cm2 and gradient magnetic field at 1-12 T/sec |
Not calculated |
Revertant assay |
No significant effects observed |
Thomas and Morris 1981 |
recA, uvrA, or recA urvA E. coli: exposed 5 hr in Petri dishes |
1.0 T |
0 |
Survival (recA, uvrA, or recA uvrA E. coli mutants) compared with wild type |
No significant effects observed |
Thomas and Morris 1981 |
E. coli recA, uvrA, and recA uvrA mutants or E. coli AB 1157 exposed 40 min or 5 hr on agar Petri plates |
Gradient magnetic field at 1-12 T/sec; coexposure to 0.094-T static magnetic field and 1-mW/cm2 RF field |
2-30 mV/m calculated from exposure apparatus by McCann et al. (1993) |
Revertant assay |
No significant effects observed |
Mileva 1982 |
Human peripheral lymphocytes: exposed 15-360 min |
0.3 T |
0 |
Chromosomal aberrations |
No significant effects observed |
Nordenson et al. 1984 |
Human peripheral lymphocytes exposed 3 hr to phytohemagglutinin stimulation |
50-Hz sinusoidal field applied through agarose bridges |
14 V/m (10 A/m2) calculated from exposure apparatus by McCann et al. (1993) |
Chromosomal aberrations |
No significant effects observed |
Nordenson et al. 1984 |
Human peripheral lymphocytes in whole blood exposed 1 min before phytohemagglutinin stimulation |
10 spark discharge pulses, 2 msec wide |
250-350 kV/m |
Chromosomal aberrations |
At the highest dose, a significant increase in chromosomal breaks |
Study |
Cell Type |
Exposure Characteristics |
Electric-Field Strength of Culture Media |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
d'Ambrosia et al. 1985 |
Bovine lymphocytes in liquid culture medium exposed 72 hr by applying external electrodes to side walls of culture flasks |
50-Hz sinusoidal field with 11% THD applied through capacitative coupling |
0.016 V/m (0.024 A/m2) |
Chromosomal aberrations |
A significant increase (& sim;3-fold) in chromosomal aberrations for three experiments |
Cohen 1986; Cohen et al. 1986a,b |
Peripheral blood lymphocytes from normal individuals (Cohen et al. 1986b) and individuals with chromosomal instability syndromes exposed 69-hr culture period |
60-Hz sinusoidal field applied through agarose bridges and coexposure to 60-Hz sinusoidal magnetic field at 10-200 µT (38-75 mT/sec) |
0.24 V/m (0.2 A/m2) (no reliable estimate available from published report) |
Chromosomal aberrations and SCEs |
No significant effects observed |
Cohen et al. 1986a,b |
Peripheral blood lymphocytes normal (Cohen et al. 1986b) and with chromosomal instability exposed 69 hr in culture |
60-Hz sinusoidal field, circularly polarized, at 10-200 µT (38-75 mT/sec) |
0.7-13 mV/m calculated from exposure apparatus by McCann et al. (1993); coexposure to 60-Hz sinusoidal electric field, 0.24 V/m (0.3 A/m2) (McCann et al. 1993) |
Chromosomal aberrations and SCEs |
No significant effects observed |
Juutilainen and Liimatainen 1986 |
Salmonella TA100 and TA98 exposed in top agar or liquid nutrient broth culture for 48 or 6.5 hr, respectively |
100-Hz sinusoidal field at 0.13, 1.3, 13, and 130 µT |
0.2, 2.0, 20, and 200 µV/m (Petri dishes); and 1.5, 15, 150, and 1,500 µV/m (flasks) calculated from exposure apparatus by McCann et al. (1993) |
Revertant assay |
No significant effects observed |
Livingston et al. 1986, 1991 |
Human lymphocytes or CHO cells exposed 24-96 hr or 72 hr, respectively |
60-Hz sinusoidal field applied through agarose bridges |
0.024-24 V/m (no reliable estimate available from published report) (0.03-30 A/m2) |
Chromosomal aberrations |
No significant effects observed |
Livingston et al. 1986, 1991 |
Peripheral blood lymphocytes or CHO cells exposed 24-96 hr or 72 hr, respectively |
60-Hz sinusoidal field, circularly polarized, at 0.22 mT (0.082 T/sec) |
0.7-13 mV/m calculated from exposure apparatus by McCann et al. 1993; coexposure to 60-Hz sinusoidal electric field at 0.024-24 V/m |
SCEs and micronuclei |
No significant effects observed |
Whitson et al. 1986 |
Normal human fibroblasts previously or post irradiated with UV light (254 nm) exposed up to 48 hr |
60-Hz applied through capacitative coupling; field in air outside media 10 kV/m |
0.4 mV/m |
DNA single-strand breaks assayed via 5-bromodeoxyuridine photolysis; pyrimidine dimers assayed using hydrolysis then two-dimensional paper chromatography, or |
No significant effects observed |
Study |
Cell Type |
Exposure Characteristics |
Electric-Field Strength of Culture Media |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
|
|
|
|
by treating cells with a UV-specific endonuclease followed by a fragment sizing analysis on sucrose gradients |
|
Takahashi et al. 1987 |
Chinese hamster V79 cells exposed 24 hr |
100-Hz saw-toothed field at 0.180-2.500 mT (7.2-100 T/sec) |
0.02-0.33 V/m calculated from exposure apparatus by McCann et al. (1993) |
SCEs |
No significant effects observed |
d'Ambrosia et al. 1988-1989 |
Bovine lymphocyte cultures exposed 3 or 45 hr |
50-Hz sinusoidal field applied through agarose bridges |
0.77-7.7 V/m (1-10 A/m2) |
Chromosomal aberrations |
Significant increases in chromatid breaks at high exposure level reported after 45-hr exposure and in total aberrations in one of two cultures tested after 3-hr exposure |
Reese et al. 1988 |
CHO cells exposed 1 hr |
60-Hz sinusoidal field applied through agarose bridges; coexposure to 60-Hz sinusoidal field at 0-2 mT |
1-38 V/m |
DNA single-strand breaks |
No significant effects reported |
Reese et al. 1988 |
CHO cells exposed 1 hr |
60-Hz sinusoidal field at 2 mT (0.75 T/sec); coexposed to 60-Hz sinusoidal electric field at 0-38 V/m |
8 mV/m calculated by McCann et al. (1993) |
DNA repair measured by alkaline elution |
No significant effects observed |
Bersani et al. 1989 |
Human peripheral lymphocytes or two human cell lines were exposed 48 hr |
50-Hz saw-toothed field at 2.5 mT peak strength (1 T/sec; induced pulse 2-msec wide at 2 mV/m) |
2 mV/m |
DNA single-strand breaks |
No significant effects observed |
Cossarizza et al. 1989; Bersani et al. 1989 |
Human lymphocytes exposed 6 hr after some cultures irradiated with 100-Gy 60Co |
50-Hz saw-toothed field at 2.5 mT peak strength (1 T/sec; induced pulse 2-msec wide at 2 mV/m) |
2 mV/m |
Unscheduled DNA synthesis |
No significant effects observed |
Peteiro-Cartelle and Cabezas-Cerrato 1989 |
Human lymphocytes exposed 3 hr or simultaneously cultured and exposed 72-96 hr |
0.045-0.125 T |
0 |
Chromosomal aberrations and SCEs |
No significant effects observed |
Rosenthal and Obe 1989 |
Human peripheral lymphocytes cultured 72 hr in magnetic field |
50-Hz sinusoidal field at 0.1-7.5 mT (0.031-2.4 T/sec) |
0.1-8 mV/m calculated from exposure apparatus by McCann et al. (1993) |
SCEs |
No significant effects observed |
Rosenthal and Obe 1989 |
Human peripheral lymphocytes pretreated with NMU, DEB, or trenimon and cultured up to 72 hr in presence of magnetic field |
50-Hz sinusoidal field at 0.5-2 mT (0.16-0.63 T/sec) with coexposure to NMU or trenimon |
0.61-2 mV/m |
SCEs |
Statistically significant (p < 0.05) increase in SCEs only in cells treated with NMU or trenimon |
Study |
Cell Type |
Exposure Characteristics |
Electric-Field Strength of Culture Media |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Takatsuji et al. 1989 |
Human peripheral lymphocytes exposed <30 min |
1.1 T + coexposure to protons and alpha particles |
0 |
Chromosomal aberrations |
Proton coexposure significant dose-response effect; frequency of dicentrics increased for both coexposures |
Frazier et al. 1990 |
Human peripheral lymphocytes previously exposed to γ-irradiation (5 Gy) exposed 0-30 min during repair |
60-Hz sinusoidal fields applied through agarose bridges; coexposure to γ radiation, 60-Hz sinusoidal magnetic field at 0-0.001 T |
1-20 V/m |
DNA single-strand breaks |
No significant effects reported |
Garcia-Sagredo et al. 1990 |
Peripheral blood lymphocytes or CHO cells exposed 24-96 hr or 72 hr, respectively |
4.4-kHz saw-toothed pulses of 5 msec width, 14 pulses per sec at 1-4 mT peak strength (50-200 T/sec) |
0.07-0.27 V/m calculated from exposure apparatus by McCann et al. (1993) |
SCEs |
No significant effects observed |
Balcer-Kubiczek and Harrison 1991 |
C3H/10T1/2 cells exposed 24 hr; post-exposure of some cells with TPA, either preceded or followed by X-rays given at 0.5, 1, or 1.5 Gy |
2.45-GHz microwaves pulse modulated at 120 Hz with electric fields at 18, 56, or 120 V/m and magnetic fields at 0.09, 0.27, or 0.56 µT |
Not calculated |
Cell survival and neoplastic transformation |
EMF alone demonstrated no effect; transformation due to EMF plus TPA highly significant; neoplastic transformation dependent on level of EMF exposure and additive of X-rays given as a cocarcinogen |
García-Sagredo and Monteagudo 1991 |
Human peripheral lymphocytes cultivated in vitro 72 hr and exposed over the last 24 hr to magnetic fields |
Quasi-rectangular pulses lasting 26 µsec, frequency 4.4 kHz, in trains of 5 msec at 14-Hz repetition rate with peak strength at 1, 2, and 4 mT |
Not calculated |
Chromosomal aberrations |
Significant effect observed at 4 mT; no significant effects observed at 1 and 2 mT |
Khalil and Qassem 1991 |
Human lymphocytes grown 24, 48, or 72 hr in presence of the magnetic field |
50-Hz pulsed field at 1 mT (0.72 T/sec) |
0.043 V/m |
Chromosomal aberrations |
Significant decreases in mitotic index; increases in chromosomal aberrations for all exposure periods; slight increase in SCEs (p < 0.05) only for 72 hr |
Novelli et al. 1991 |
Saccharomyces cerevisiae cultures exposed up to 24 hr and then examined by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) |
50-Hz electric-and magnetic-field exposure consisting of 4 units: 1. uniform magnetic field; 2. uniform electric field; 3. orthogonal uniform electric and magnetic field; and 4. no field control with electric field from 0.1-20 kV/m and magnetic field from 0.2-200 µT |
Not calculated |
DNA double-strand breaks |
No significant effects observed |
Study |
Cell Type |
Exposure Characteristics |
Electric-Field Strength of Culture Media |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Scarfi et al. 1991 |
Human lymphocytes grown 72 hr in the magnetic field |
50-Hz saw-toothed field at 0.025 T (some cell cultures coexposed to mitomycin C) |
0.005 V/m |
Micronuclei |
No significant effects observed |
Fiorani et al. 1992 |
Cultured K562 human tumor cells exposed 1, 4, 6, 12, or 24 hr |
50-Hz electric field at 0.2-20 kV/m and magnetic field at 0.2-200 µT |
Not calculated |
DNA single-strand breaks and cell growth |
No significant effects observed |
Chahal et al. 1993 |
E. coli K-12 strain AB1157, and its derivatives TK702 umuC (deficient in error prone repair) and TK501 umuC uvrB (lacking both error prone and excision repair) exposed 1 or 16 hr |
1-Hz electric field at 3 kV/m for 1 hr or 1 kV/m for 16 hr alone or in combination with UV and/or mitomycin C |
Not calculated |
Mutations |
No significant effects observed |
Fiorio et al. 1993 |
Chinese hamster V79 cells exposed 10 days |
50-Hz sinusoidal magnetic field at 200 µT |
Not calculated |
Chromosomal aberrations, SCEs, and cell survival |
No significant increase in chromosomal aberrations or SCEs; cell viability decreased by 50% after 10 days with only 100 plated; however, no reduction in viability with 2 × 105 seeded cells |
Scarfí et al. 1993 |
Human peripheral lymphocytes exposed 72 hr and assayed using the cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay |
50-Hz ac sinusoidal electric field at 0.5, 2, 5, and 10 kV/m |
Not calculated |
Micronuclei |
No significant effects observed |
Zwingelberg et al. 1993 |
Cultured rat peripheral lymphocytes exposed 7-28 days, 24 hr/day |
Homogenous 50-Hz, magnetic field at 30 mT |
Not calculated |
SCEs and chromosomal aberrations |
No significant effects observed |
Fairbairn and O'Neill 1994 |
HL-60 cells, Raji cells, HeLa cells, and human peripheral lymphocytes exposed 2-30 min |
50-Hz magnetic field with peak amplitude at 5 mT and pulse duration of 3 msec |
Not calculated |
DNA single-strand breaks |
No significant effect observed |
Libertin et al. 1994 |
HeLa cells transfected with a CAT construct transcriptionally driven by HIV-LTR promoter exposed 24 or 48 hr |
ac field: 10 Hz-1.6 kHz, 0.07-35 µT; dc field: 170 µT |
Not calculated |
HIV-LTR expression |
No significant effects observed |
Nordenson et al. 1994 |
Human amniotic cells exposed 72 hr continuously and intermittently (15 sec on, 15 sec off; 2 sec on, 20 sec off) |
50-Hz magnetic field at 30 µT (rms) and 300 µT |
Not calculated |
Chromosomal aberrations |
A significant increase observed in intermittently exposed cells; no significant increase seen in continuously exposed cells |
TABLE A3-2 Peer-Reviewed Reports on Power-Frequency Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure and Calcium, October 1990-1994
Study |
Cell Type |
Exposure Characteristics |
Electric-Field Strength of Culture Media |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Moses and Martin 1992 |
Early chicken embryos |
NA |
NA |
Levels of 5-nucleotidase, acetylcholinesterase (NT), and alkaline phosphatase |
Nine exposed and 13 controls with morphologic anomalies; in normal embryos NT activity decreased; in abnormal embryos, all three were decreased |
Karabakhtsian et al. 1994 |
HL-60 cells |
NA |
NA |
c-fos and c-myc |
Experiments demonstrated that calcium is necessary in the cell response to electric and magnetic fields |
Carson et al. 1990 |
HL-60 cells |
Radiofrequency EMF, static magnetic field, and time-varying magnetic field supplied by a magnetic resonance imaging unit for 23 min |
NA |
Calciumsensitive fluorescent indicator indo-1 |
Cells treated with all three fields in combination exhibited increase in calcium; cells exposed only to the time-varying magnetic field also had calcium higher than controls |
Walleczek and Budinger 1992 |
Thymic lymphocytes (rat) |
3-Hz pulsed magnetic field (PMF) with peak flux densities at 1.6, 6.5, or 28 mT |
Induced electric fields at 0.04, 0.16, or 0.69 mV/cm |
Concanavalin-A (Con-A)-induced calcium-ion signaling |
Exposure of Con-A responsive cells to the 1.6-, 6.5-, and 28-mT fields resulted in 29.8, 45.7, and 95.6% inhibition of 45Ca2+ uptake, respectively; decreases induced by the 6.5- and 28-mT fields were statistically significant; PMFs having flux densities nearly 104 times greater than those found in the average human environment were shown to stimulate or inhibit Ca2+ signal transduction |
Yost and Liburdy 1992 |
Thymic lymphocytes |
16-Hz, 42.1-µT with collinear static magnetic field at 23.4 µT (ac/dc field ratio 1.8) |
Dosimetry carefully controlled |
Mitogen-activated (Con-A) calcium transport using 45Ca2+ |
Increase in Ca2+ observed 100 sec after mitogen stimulation |
Smith et al. 1993 |
Seeds of Raphanus sativus |
60-Hz magnetic field tuned to the ion cyclotron resonance frequencies for calcium and potassium |
24 hr/day for 21 days |
Germination rate, growth, size |
Seeds exposed to calcium-tuned fields slow to germinate but grew more rapidly and finally larger than the controls; potassium-tuned fields produced rapid germination but inhibited all but root growth, which was larger than controls |
Schwartz and Mealing 1993 |
Atrial strips of frog heart |
Exposed for 32 min to continuous-wave (CV) or amplitude-modulated (AM) magnetic field at 1 GHz; modulation at 0.5 Hz in synchrony with the preparation or at 16 Hz |
Specific absorption rate (SAR) ranging from 3.2 µW/kg to 1.6 W/kg |
Calcium efflux using 45Ca2+ |
No effects observed |
Schwartz et al. 1990 |
Isolated frog hearts |
30 min in Crawford cell; 240 MHz, either CV or AM at 0.5 or 16 Hz |
Calculated SAR between 0.15 and 3.0 mW/kg |
Calcium efflux using 45Ca2+ |
No effect at 0.5 Hz; movement of calcium ions observed at 16 Hz; 18% change at 0.3 mW/kg and 21% at 0.15 mW/kg |
Dutta et al. 1992a |
Neuroblastoma cells NG108 |
147 MHz AM at 16 Hz for 30 min |
NA |
Acetylcholine esterase activity |
Monitoring AChE activity in power density and time windows confirms earlier work on neuroblastoma cells in culture where calcium efflux was monitored |
TABLE A4-1 Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure and Carcinogenesis
Study |
Species (Sex) |
Number per Exposed Group |
Exposure Characteristics |
Exposure Duration |
End Point Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
Spontaneous Tumor Development |
|||||||
Beniashvili et al. 1991 |
Rats (female) |
25-50 |
20 µT, 50 Hz |
0.5-3 hr/day for up to 2 yr |
Mammary tumors |
Increase of tumor incidence at 3 hr/day exposure |
Minimal exposure system information |
Rannug et al. 1993a |
Mice (female) |
36 |
50 or 500 µT, 50 Hz |
19-21 hr/day for 103 wk |
All tumors |
Reduction in survival time and trend to increase in leukemia at 500 µT exposure |
|
Svedenstal and Holmberg 1993 |
Mice (female) |
63 |
15 µT, 20 kHz |
Life long |
Lymphomas |
No effects of field exposure |
X-ray, 4 × 0.31 Gy used as an initiator |
Implantation of Tumor Cells |
|||||||
Thomson et al. 1988 |
Mice (female) |
20 |
1.4, 200, or 500 µT, 60 Hz |
6 hr/day for 5 days/wk until death (~2 wk) |
P388 leukemia cells |
No effect on survival time |
Severe time limitation with model dynamics |
Promotion of Tumors |
|||||||
Rannug et al. 1993b,c |
Rats (male) |
9-10 |
50 or 500 µT, 50 Hz |
19-21 hr/day for 12 wk |
Liver tumor |
No tumor promotion |
|
Study |
Species (Sex) |
Number per Exposed Group |
Exposure Characteristics |
Exposure Duration |
End Point Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
Promotion of Tumors |
|||||||
McLean et al. 1991 |
Mice (female) |
32 |
2 mT, 60 Hz |
6 hr/day, 5 days/wk for 21 days |
Skin tumors promoted by DMBA/TPA |
Trend to more rapid development of tumors |
Copromotion with TPA suggested |
Stuchly et al. 1992 |
Mice (female) |
48 |
2 mT, 60 Hz |
6 hr/day, 5 days/wk for 21 days |
Skin tumors promoted by DMBA/TPA |
Decrease in tumor latency; increase in tumor incidence |
|
Rannug et al. 1993a |
Mice (female) |
36 |
50 or 500 µT, 50 Hz |
19-21 hr/day for 12 wk |
Skin tumors promoted by DMBA/TPA |
No effect on tumor latency or tumor incidence |
|
Beniashvili et al. 1991 |
Rats (female) |
50 |
20 µT, 50 Hz |
0.5-3 hr/day for up to 160 hr |
Mammary tumors promoted by NMU |
Increase in tumor number; decrease in tumor latency at 3 hr/day |
Minimal information on system and experimental design |
Mevissen et al. 1993 |
Rats (female) |
15-18 |
30 mT, 50 Hz |
24 hr/day for 3 mon |
Mammary tumors promoted by DMBA |
Increase in tumor number per animal |
Not reproduced upon repeat |
Löscher et al. 1994 |
Rats (female) |
36 |
0.3-1 µT, 50 Hz |
24 hr/day for 3 mon |
Mammary tumors promoted by DMBA |
Trend to decrease in tumor latency; decrease in nocturnal melatonin secretion |
|
Löscher et al. 1993 |
Rats (female) |
99 |
100 µT, 50 Hz |
24 hr/day for 3 mon |
Mammary tumors promoted by DMBA |
Decrease in tumor latency; strong increase in tumor incidence |
Strong experimental protocol and methods |
Baum et al. 1995 |
Rats (female) |
99 |
100 µT, 50 Hz |
24 hr/day for 3 mon |
Mammary tumors promoted by DMBA |
Increase in incidence; increase in median tumor size |
Strong experimental protocol and methods |
TABLE A4-2 Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure and Reproductive and Developmental Effects
Study |
Species |
Developmental Stage |
Number of Controls and Exposure Characteristics |
Number of Exposed and Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
Andrienko 1977 |
Rats |
Parental male and female before and during gestation |
270 animals |
270 animals; 5 kV/m, 50 Hz, 1.5-4.5 mon including gestation |
Reproductive processes and in utero development |
Decrease in weight of newborns and survival to 21 days |
No apparent relationship to exposure; statistical design and lack of description of experimental design do not meet scientific criteria for evaluation |
Algers and Hultgren 1987 |
Cows (Swedish red and white) |
4-mon gestation |
58 animals; same environment below 100 V/m and 70 nT |
58 animals; 4 (1.4-8.4) kV/m, 50 Hz, 2 (0.4-4.7) µT; exposure under 400-kV power line |
Fertility, estrous cycle, progesterone levels, intensity of estrous, viability of offspring, malformations |
No changes detected |
Blinding in study not indicated |
Berman et al. 1990 |
Chickens (white leghorn) |
Embryo during first 48 hr of development |
100 animals each in six laboratories; no field applied |
100 animals each in six laboratories; unipolar pulses, 100 Hz, 9.5 msec duration, 1 µT peak, 2 nsec rise time |
Fertility, developmental stage, morphology |
Two of six laboratories detected a decrease in percent of normal embryos as a function of fertile eggs and live embryos; effect |
Field uniformity 5% electric field, dc magnetic field, 50 and 60 Hz evaluated, also vibrations; all laboratories agreed on viability, stage, and somite |
|
|
|
|
|
|
significant when results of all laboratories pooled |
development; disagreed on malformations; four laboratories had no increase in malformations, one had a 4-fold increase, and one had a 2-fold increase; evaluations blinded |
Blackman et al. 1988b |
Chickens (Gallas domesticus) |
Embryos and 1.5 days posthatching |
No sham exposure |
288 eggs, ~10 V/m, 50 or 60 Hz; 5.9 V/m; 73 nT, brain in vitro |
Calcium efflux from brain |
Calculated current density: 0.13 µA/m2 in eggs; calcium efflux affected by 50 but not 60 Hz |
Not independently confirmed; no indication that studies were blinded |
Burack et al. 1984 |
Sprague-Dawley rates |
14-21 days |
12 litters; not energized, randomly selected system (room) |
17 litters; 80 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Postnatal viability, growth, body weight, developmental landmarks |
Well-engineered and evaluated system, all required measurements, no shocks while drinking; blind experiment; no change in litter size, viability, or other measures; reduction in percent of exposed males displaying copulatory behavior |
Small number of animals; no evaluation of general stress as a confounder; no indication that studies were blinded |
Study |
Species |
Developmental Stage |
Number of Controls and Exposure Characteristics |
Number of Exposed and Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
Cameron et al. 1985 |
Medaka fish |
Fertilized eggs (2- and 4- cell embryos) |
NA |
Number of eggs not provided; 100 µT rms, 300 mA/m2; 60 Hz; magnetic only, electric only, and magnetic plus electric |
Morphologic defects; developmental delay |
No increase in morphologic defects; developmental delay observed with magnetic and magnetic plus electric fields, but not with electric field alone |
Not independently confirmed; reported delays did not result in abnormal development or decreased survivability; no indication that studies were blinded |
Cox et al. 1993 |
Chickens (white leghorn) |
Last 52 hr of gestation |
200 eggs |
200 eggs; 10 µT, 50 Hz, plus 17 µT DC |
Morphology |
No increases in abnormal development |
Attempted to confirm Berman studies; analyses blinded |
Fam, 1980 |
Swiss-Webster mice |
Parental male and female exposed before and during gestation |
Number not provided; system not energized; similar set up to exposure. |
23 females and 23 males; 240 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Litter growth, blood histology, biochemistry, histology of critical organs |
No changes |
No information given on evaluation of fields from given dimensions; poor uniformity, 23 animals housed in a single cage; no indication that studies were blinded |
Free et al. 1981 |
Sprague-Dawley rats |
20-69 days of age |
20 animals; not energized, interchangeable with field, all the same. |
20 animals; 64, 68, or 80 kV/m; 60 Hz |
Testosterone, FSH, LH, corticosterone, prolactin, TSH, GSH, thyroxin |
No treatment-related effects |
Well-engineered exposure system, described in great detail, all essential parameters required and many desirable given; no indication that studies were blinded |
Frolen et al. 1993 |
CBA/S mice |
1-19 days, 2-19 days, 5-19 days, 7-19 days |
543 animals; control racks with no coils; stray field at 0.1-0.7 µT |
707 animals; 15 µT, 20-kHz sawtoothed, 45-µsec rise and 5-µsec fall |
Number of implants, resorptions, living and dead fetuses, malformations, length and weight of live fetuses |
Increased resorption rate in all but 7-19 days; fetal body weight and length decreased in 7-19 days; no change in litter size |
dc magnetic field measured, 50-Hz ambient 15-52 nT, exposure field not perturbed by cages; no information on vibration and illumination; lack of correlation between increased rates of resorptions and litter size makes it unlikely that detected increase is biologically significant; no indication that studies were blinded |
Huuskonen et al. 1993 |
Wistar rats |
1-20 days |
72 animals; coil system not energized |
144 animals; 35.6 µT (50 Hz) or 15 µT (20 kHz, sawtoothed) |
Malformations, resorptions, living and dead fetuses |
No increase in malformation or resorption rates; mean number of |
6-17% field uniformity, dc and 50-Hz ambient measured; no |
Study |
Species |
Developmental Stage |
Number of Controls and Exposure Characteristics |
Number of Exposed and Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
|
|
|
|
|
|
implants and living fetuses increased in 50 Hz; increase in minor skeletal anomalies |
indication that studies were blinded |
Kowalczuk and Saunders 1990 |
Mice (male) |
Dominant lethal mutation |
10 animals; same room, plates not energized |
10 animals; 20 kV/m, 50 Hz; 2 wk; positive control: 10 animals |
In utero death, litter size, viability |
No effects |
10% field uniformity; no information on exposure given, except cage position interchanged; females not exposed; no indication that studies were blinded |
Margonato and Viola 1982 |
Rats (male) |
Offspring exposed up to 48 days |
NA |
27 animals; 30 min/day or 8 hr/day; 100 kV/m, 50 Hz |
Treated males: fertility, sperm viability, morphology; offspring: number of implantations, percent live/litter, incidence of malformations |
No treatment-related effects on male reproduction or offspring |
No indication that studies were blinded |
Marino et al. 1976 |
Mice |
Three generations |
233 animals; either ambient or shielded in same apparatus |
331 animals; 10 kV/m, 60 Hz, 3.5 kV/m |
Mortality and morbidity during first week postpartum; 8-35 days postpartum |
Decreased body weight at 35 days postpartum and increased mortality for three generations |
Number of experimental animals approximate; results might be due to grounding microcurrents animals experienced while feeding; no indication that studies were blinded |
Marino et al. 1980 |
Mice |
Three generations |
519 animals; either ambient or shielded in the same apparatus |
497 animals; 3.5 kV/m, 60 Hz, 3.5 kV/m |
Mortality and weight of animals for three generations |
Increased mortality in each exposed generation and increase in body weight in only the third generation |
Ambient electric field 2-12 V/m; rubber foam to prevent unspecified vibrations; no examination of fetuses for birth weight or malformations; insufficient data regarding mortality for independent analysis; number of animals approximated; possible microshocks from drinking apparatus; no indication that studies were blinded |
Study |
Species |
Developmental Stage |
Number of Controls and Exposure Characteristics |
Number of Exposed and Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
Martin 1992 |
Chickens (white leghorn) |
First 48 hr |
100 eggs |
100 eggs; 3 µT (peak to peak), 60 Hz; with 2-µsec rise and fall times, 500-µsec duration |
Morphology; frequency of malformations |
No exposure-related effects |
All analyses blinded |
McGiven et al. 1990 |
Sprague-Dawley rats |
15-20 days gestation |
6 animals; same treatment, but not in the coil; cage control: 6 animals |
6 animals; 800 µT (peak intensity), 15 Hz pulsed, 300 µsec duration, 5 µsec fall time |
At birth: number live, average weight, anogenital distance; at 120 days postpartum: reproductive morphology, and male testosterone, LH, FSH, testes, accessory sex organ weight, and marking behavior |
Calculated internal fields at 0.1-0.5 V/m; no effect on number live, average weight, anogenital distance; no differences in hormone levels; increased accessory sex organ weight; reduced marking behavior |
Not replicated by any other laboratory; no indication that studies were blinded |
McRobbie and Foster 1985 |
Swiss-Webster (CD-1) mice |
Not known |
NA |
Number of animals not given; varying and unspecified periods of exposure; 3.5-12 kT (capacitor |
Number of live young and postnatal growth rates |
Heat removed by forced air, vibrations eliminated by separate mounting, noise limited but not eliminated; no |
Does not conform to scientifically accepted protocols; no indication that studies were blinded |
|
|
|
|
discharge-MRI simulation) |
|
treatment-related effects |
|
Persinger et al. 1978 |
Wistar rat |
19 days prepartum to 3 days postpartum |
3 animals per group; the same system without magnets |
3 animals per group; 5, 100, or 1,000 µT, 0.5-Hz rotating |
38 blood, tissue, and consumptive measurements |
Random |
No indication that studies were blinded |
Rommereim et al. 1987 |
Rats (female) |
Adults and offspring exposed 19 hr/day for 4 wk |
1,780 animals; not energized, interchangeable with field, all the same |
1,831 animals; 100 kV/m; effective field at 65 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Copulatory behavior, intrauterine mortality, malformation |
No indication of altered mating behavior; effect on fertility not consistent; fetal death lower in one exposed group than in controls |
Well-engineered exposure system, described in great detail, all essential parameters required and many desirable given; very large study, found some positive findings but not repeated in duplicate experiments; inconsistent results could be due to random variation or threshold dose; analyses blinded |
Rommereim et al. 1989 |
Rats (female) |
Adults through mating, pregnancy parturition, and rearing of young |
223 animals; not energized, inter-changeable with field, all the same |
450 animals; 112, 150 kV/m; 60 Hz; 1-mon exposure of females before mating; exposed 19 hr/day |
Litter size, sex ratio, mortality, maternal and fetal weight gain, and growth |
No effects on reproduction measurements |
Well-engineered exposure system, described in great detail, all essential parameters required and many desirable given; study |
Study |
Species |
Developmental Stage |
Number of Controls and Exposure Characteristics |
Number of Exposed and Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
designed to answer question of threshold from 1987 publication; analyses blinded |
Rommereim et al. 1990 |
Sprague-Dawley rats |
Adult through pregnancy, parturition, and rearing of the young for two generations |
68 animals; not energized, interchangeable with field; all parameters the same |
204 animals (3 groups) exposed 19 hr/day; 10, 65, or 130 kV/m; 60 Hz |
Percent pregnant, gestational and postnatal weight gain, litter size, neonatal and juvenile mortality, sex ratio, placental weight, number of corpora lutea, implantations, resorptions, malformation |
No detrimental effects on survival or growth of the offspring |
Well-engineered exposure system, described in great detail, all essential parameters required and many desirable given; analyses blinded |
Seto et al. 1984 |
Rats |
Four generations |
1,337 animals; not energized, randomly selected system (room) |
1,346 animals; 80 kV/m, 60 Hz, 21 hr/day; conceived, born, and raised for four generations |
Fertility, litter size at birth and weaning, sex ratio, weight at weaning, frequency of malformations |
No effects |
No information given on evaluation from given dimensions: poor uniformity, 23 animals housed in one cage, raising |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
concerns about shielding; no water available to animals during exposure; no measurements of weight of newborns or careful examinations of those exposed in utero for malformations; analyses blinded |
Sikov et al. 1984 |
Rat |
Before mating until term; 8 days from conception; 17-25 days postpartum |
128 animals; not energized, interchangeable with field, all the same |
337 animals; 100 kV/m; 60 Hz, 20 hr/day; group 1, females exposed 6 days before mating until term; group 2, females exposed 8 days preconception until term; and group 3, same as 2 except exposure 17-25 days postpartum |
Fertility, resorptions, viability, sex ratio, birth weight, postpartum growth, and malformation; postnatal behavioral tests including movement, grooming, standing and righting reflex, and geotropism |
No reproductive effects; transient behavioral changes in neonatal period, but not when tested 21 days postpartum |
Well-engineered exposure system, described in great detail, all essential parameters required and many desirable given; rats can perceive and respond to 60-Hz field strengths below those used in these studies; no indication that studies were blinded. |
Sikov et al. 1987 |
Hanford miniature swine |
F-0 study group for 4 mon before breeding and for first |
114 animals; not energized, separate building |
261 animals; 30 kV/m, 60-Hz field, 20 hr/day, 7 days/wk. F-0 |
F-0 and F-1 were birth defect studies; birth weight and litter |
No effects on birth weight and litter size; increase in malformations in |
Exposure system well engineered and described in detail with all essential |
Study |
Species |
Developmental Stage |
Number of Controls and Exposure Characteristics |
Number of Exposed and Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
|
|
100 days postpartum |
|
group exposed 4 mon before breeding and for first 100 days postpartum |
size, rates of malformation |
musculoskeletal and digits; F-1 groups, increase in malformations |
parameters given; malformations, and CNS or cardiovascular defects not described; increase in malformations not a consistent finding across generations; no indication that studies were blinded |
Stuchly et al. 1988 |
Rats |
2 wk before conception and throughout pregnancy |
340 maternal animals |
987 maternal animals; 5.7, 23, and 66 µT (alternating field) for 7 hr/day; sawtoothed waveform (18,000 Hz) similar to but higher than a video-display terminal |
Maternal weight gain, fetal and placental weight, litter size, live fetuses and resorptions, major and minor malformations |
All reproductive results indistinguishable from control results; fewer skeletal variants in higher exposure groups and an increase in minor skeletal anomalies by fetus, but not litter |
Appropriate large control and exposed groups; no reproductive effects but a reduction in maternal lymphocyte count, although still within the normal range; no indication that studies were blinded |
Wiley et al. 1992 |
Mice |
1-18 days |
185 animals; identical system, not energized |
558 animals; 3.6, 17, and 200 µT; 20-kHz sawtoothed waveform |
Implantations, fetal deaths, resorptions, and body weights; gross external, visceral, and skeletal malformations |
No exposure-related effects |
Very well characterized, blind, computer monitoring, vibrations, illumination evaluated but not reported; no indication that studies were blinded |
Zusman et al. 1990 |
Rats and mice |
Preimplantation embryos through blastocyst |
9 animals; sham-exposure conditions not given |
34 animals; 1, 20, 50, 70, or 100-Hz, 0.6 V/m; pulse duration 10 msec |
Malformations |
Cultured rat embryo: abnormal limb development; cultured mouse embryo: developmental retardation; no effects in vivo |
Internal fields below 1 µV/m (with 0.6 V/m in air); no indication that studies were blinded |
TABLE A4-3 Reports of Special Interest on Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure and Neurobehavioral Effects
Study |
Species |
Developmental Stage |
Number per Group |
Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
Wolpaw et al. 1989 |
Macaque monkeys (male) |
4-6 yr |
4 sham, 6 exposed |
3 kV/m, 10 µT; 10 kV/m, 30 µT; 30 kV/m, 90 µT |
Well being, weight, blood chemistry, simple motor tasks, postmortem |
No effects |
|
Sagan et al. 1987 |
Sprague-Dawley rats |
Adult |
32 exposed |
0-27 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Operant detection threshold |
13.3 or 7.9 kV/m detection threshold |
|
Lovely et al. 1992 |
Sprague-Dawley rats (male) |
Adult 63 and 3 days |
8 sham, 32 exposed |
3.03 mT, 60 Hz |
Avoidance shuttlebox, 1 hr |
No effects |
|
Dowman et al. 1989 |
Macaque monkeys |
Adult, 5-7 kg |
6 sham, 4 exposed |
3 kV/m, 10 µT; 10 kV/m, 30 µT; 30 kV/m, 90 µT |
Auditory, visual, somatosensory, evoked response 2 times per week |
No effects |
Somatosensory decrease in amplitude of late response for exposures of 10 kV/m and 30 kV/m |
Hong et al. 1988 |
Sprague-Dawley rats |
Exposed 0-14 days; weaned at 21 days; tested at 30 days |
46 sham, 50 exposed |
0.5 T, 3 exposures per day for 15 min for 2 wk |
Repeated reversal of position habit |
No effects |
|
Liboff et al. 1989 |
Rats |
Adult |
0 shams, 5 exposed |
26.1 µT, 0.139 µT, 60 Hz |
Performance on FR/BRL combined operant schedule |
DRL baseline disrupted not FR; threshold for effect, 27 µT |
|
Stern and Laties 1989 |
Rats (male and female) |
Adults |
5, animals were their own controls |
90-100 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Press lever to switch exposure off or on |
No effect |
|
Salzinger et al. 1990 |
Rats |
Exposed at 8 days of age, tested as adults at 90 days old |
21 exposed, 20 sham |
30 kV/m, 100 mT rems, 60 Hz |
Complex operant schedule with repeat extinction and releasing |
Slower rates of responding on many tasks in exposed groups |
Good study |
Weigel et al. 1987 |
Cats |
Adult, 2.1-4.6 kg |
N/A |
245 receptors, 600 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Receptor responsiveness, cats paw stimulation, recorded DRG |
Hair removal deceased response; mineral oil decreased response further |
|
Ossenkopp and Cain 1988 |
Rats (male) |
Adult, 350 g |
17 sham, 17 exposed, crossover design |
100 µT, 60 Hz |
Kindling after discharge duration |
Attenuation after discharge in experimental groups |
|
TABLE A4-4 Electric-Field Exposure and Neurobiologic Effects
Study |
Species |
Developmental Stage |
Number per Group |
Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
Blackwell and Reed 1985 |
Mice (male) |
21-30 g |
20 sham, 20 exposed |
50-400 V/m, 15-50 Hz |
Sleep-time exploration behavior |
No effects |
|
Rosenberg et al. 1981 |
Deer mice |
5-15 mon |
34 in plastic cages above ground, 21 grounded |
100 kV/m, 10 Hz |
Activity, circulation, CO2, oxygen, temperature |
Transient activity and gas increase during inactive phase |
|
Rosenberg et al. 1983 |
Deer mice |
5-15 mon |
8 sham, 60 exposed |
10-75 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Activity, blood gas |
Transient increase with exposures of 50-75 kV/m |
|
Blackwell 1986 |
Albino male rats (HMT) |
250-400 g |
200 recordings, 51 cells |
100 V/m, 50, 30, and 45 Hz |
Firing rate timed |
No effect on rate at 15 and 30 Hz; firing time was dependent on field voltage |
|
Creim et al. 1984 |
Sprague-Dawley rats (male) |
70 days |
3 exposed, 4 groups each |
69 kV/m, 133 kV/m, 34 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Taste aversion, time drinking saccharine |
No effects |
|
Easley et al. 1991 |
Baboons |
5-6 yr |
8 exposed, 8 sham |
30 kV/m, 60 Hz; exposed 6 wk, 12 hr/day and 7 days/wk |
Social behavior, passive affinity, tension, steroptopy |
Social stress only in first 2 wk |
|
Stern and Laties 1985 |
Rats (female) |
Adult |
5 own control |
55 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Operant detection |
3-10 kV/m detection threshold |
|
Hjeresen et al. 1980 |
Rats |
Adult |
8 sham, 32 exposed per experiment |
0, 60, and 105 kV/m |
Shuttlebox avoidance and general acuity |
75 kV/m and greater in long 23.5 hr exposure leads to |
|
|
|
|
|
|
avoidance of exposed regions during light portion of the day, more activity |
|
Hjeresen et al. 1982 |
Swine |
22-24 mon, 65 kg |
15 sham, 7 exposed |
30 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Shuttlebox avoidance |
Spent more time out of electric fields during sleep time |
Jaffe et al. 1983 |
Rats (male) |
3-6 wk |
Two experiments: 1-14 exposed, 15 sham, 2-46 exposed, 25 sham |
100 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Synaptic transmission and PNS function SCG (in vitro) |
Increased synaptic excitability |
Jaffe et al. 1980 |
Rats (male) |
0-30 days |
114 sham and exposed |
65 kV/m, 60 Hz, 20 hr/day, PD 11-20 |
Visual-evoked response in cortex |
Age effects but no exposure effects |
Portet and Cabanes 1988 |
Rats (male), rabbits |
Rats begin prenatally, rabbits 8 wk |
Rats: 25 exposed, 25 sham; rabbits: 28 exposed in four equal groups |
50 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Organ growth, hormone production, many measurements |
Only in rabbits, adrenal cortisol decrease, but no decrease in plasma cortisol |
Stern and Laties 1989 |
Rats (male and female) |
Adults |
5 animals, animal was own control |
90-100 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Press lever to switch exposure on and off |
No effect |
Stern et al. 1983 |
Rats |
Adults |
19 animals, animal was own control |
0-10 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Detection threshold, operant response |
4-8 kV/m detection threshold |
Study |
Species |
Developmental Stage |
Number per Group |
Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
Salzinger et al. 1990 |
Rats |
Exposed at 8 days old and tested as adults at 90 days old |
21 exposed, 20 sham |
30 kV/m, 100 mT rems, 60 Hz |
Complex operant schedule with repeat extinction and releasing |
Slower rates of responding on many tasks in exposed groups |
|
Weigel et al. 1987 |
Cats |
Adult, 2.1-4.6 kg |
|
245 receptors, 600 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Receptor responsiveness, catspaw stimulation, record in DRG |
Hair removal decreased response; mineral oil decreased response further |
Tested hypothesis of direct field effect in neuronal (DRG) membrane; not likely to be membrane action |
Hackman and Graves 1981 |
Mice |
Adult, 56-58 days |
110 mice, 5-15 per group |
5 min/day for 6 wk; 0, 25, 50 kV/m; 60 Hz |
Corticosterone levels |
Increase immediately after onset |
|
Cooper et al. 1981 |
Pigeons |
5-12 mon |
6 |
25, 50 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Conditioned suppression (detection) |
Significant suppression at 50 kV/m |
Suppression does not mean aversion |
Graves 1981 |
Pigeons |
5-12 mon |
6 |
50 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Conditioned suppression |
Significant suppression |
Not vibration |
Graves et al. 1978 |
Pigeons, leghorn chickens |
Adult |
60 birds, 20 groups |
0, 40, 80 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Conditioned suppression EEG heart rate |
CS detected at 32 kV/m, EEG increase variance, heart rate increased |
|
Smith et al. 1979 |
Rats |
Young adult; begins at 30 days |
8 sham, 8 exposed |
25 kV/m, 60 Hz, for 5 or 6 wk |
Body mass, food and water intake, exploratory behavior |
No effects |
|
Sagan et al. 1987 |
Sprague-Dawley rats |
Adult |
32 |
0-27 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Operant detection threshold |
13.3 or 7.9 kV/m detection threshold |
|
Jaffe et al. 1981 |
Rats (male) |
Adult males |
In 3 experiments, 22 exposed, 14 sham; 13 exposed, 14 sham; 18 exposed, 20 sham |
100 kV/m, 60 Hz |
Neuromuscular function (FTW), plantor (PTW), soleus muscles (STW), muscle fiber |
Fatigue in STW fibers constantly enhanced |
|
Rosenberg et al. 1981 |
Deer mice |
5-15 mon |
34 exposed, 21 sham |
100 kV/m rms, 60 Hz |
Gross motor CO2, O2, and temperature |
Activity and gas increased initially then returned to normal |
|
Hackman and Graves 1981 |
Mice |
70 days |
5-15 in all groups |
0-50,000 V/m, 60 Hz |
Plasma corticosterone |
Acute transient increase after exposure to high levels |
Perception apparent for only minutes |
TABLE A4-5 Magnetic-Field Exposure and Neurobehavioral Effects
Study |
Species |
Developmental Stage |
Number per Group |
Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
Lovely et al. 1992 |
Rats (male) |
Adult, 3 and 63 days |
8 sham, 24 exposed |
3.03 mT, 60 Hz |
Avoidance shuttlebox for 1 hr |
No effect |
|
Thomas et al. 1986 |
Rats (male) |
Adult |
5 were own controls |
2.6 µT, 60 Hz |
FR/BRL performance mixed schedule |
Decreased rate of DRL performance only |
Cyclotran resonance geomagnetic |
Smith and Justesen 1977 |
mice |
Adult |
39 in 3 gender groups |
1.3 ± 0.3 mT, 60 Hz |
Locomotor activity aggression |
Field induced increase in activity |
|
Ossenkopp et al. 1985 |
Mice (male) |
Adult |
In 2 experiments: 31 exposed, 20 sham; 10 exposed, 20 sham |
147 ± .02 mT, 6.2 Hz (4.7), 8 mT/sec, 10 mT/sec |
Analesia to morphine (latency to respond) |
Attenuated analgesia day and night |
Theory: pineal gland and calcium bonding |
Ossenkopp and Kavaliers 1987 |
Mice (male) |
Adult |
15 sham, 10 exposed at 100 µT, 16 exposed at 50 µT twice |
2 µT, 100 µT, 150 µT, 30-min exposure |
Analgesia to morphine (latency to respond) |
Attenuate in linear relation to 100 µT highest at 150 µT |
|
Ossenkopp and Cain 1988 |
Rats (male) |
Adult, 350 g |
17 exposed, 17 sham, cross over design |
100 µT, 60 Hz |
Kindling after discharge duration |
Attenuation of discharge in experimental groups |
|
Clarke and Justesen 1979 |
Leghorn chickens |
Exposed 24 hr in utero, tested at 10 wk |
2 sham, 2 exposed |
4.0 mT dc, 1.7 mT rms, 60 Hz |
Conditioned suppression |
Detection as evidenced by increased variability, both ac and dc effect |
dc movement induced effect |
Tucker and Schmitt 1978 |
Humans |
Adult |
200 |
0.75, 1.3, 1.5, and 7.5 mT; 60 Hz |
Detection |
No detection |
|
Kavaliers and Ossenkopp 1986a |
CF-1 and C57BL mice |
1-2 mon, 25-30 g |
10 mice per group |
30-min exposure 0.15-9 mT, 0.5 Hz |
Paw-flick response to 50 ±, 5° C hotplate; 1-min total activity monitor |
Exposure for 30 min markedly decreases degree of stress-induced opiod analgesia and hyperactivity |
|
Rudolph et al. 1985 |
Wistar rats |
Adult, 385 g |
2 groups: light and dark; total: 47 rats |
50 Hz, 40 µT dc, 4-hr exposure |
18-min test of open field activity |
40% increase in activity, only at beginning of light field test |
|
Kavaliers and Ossenkopp 1986b |
CF-1 mice |
3-4 mon adults, 30-35 g |
10 mice per group |
0.5 Hz, 0.15-9 mT for 60 min |
Paw-flick hotplate response to m, d, k, and S agonists |
Significant attenuation of agonist effects for all receptor agonists except SKF-10047 S receptor |
|
Kavaliers and Ossenkopp 1986c |
CF-1 and C57BL mice (male) |
3-4 mon, 30-35 g |
10 mice per group |
0.5 Hz, 0.15-9 mT |
1-min activity latency to lift paw in hotplate response to 10 mg/kg morphine |
B field inhibited effects of morphine; EGTA blocks inhibition; A21387 (Ca2+ ionophore) augments analgesia |
Ca2+ antagonized morphine effect |
Study |
Species |
Developmental Stage |
Number per Group |
Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
Ossenkopp and Kavaliers 1987 |
CF-1 mice (male) |
2-3 mon, 25-30 g |
27 sham, 50 exposed |
Two experiments: 15 sham; 10 exposed at 50 µT, 16 exposed at 100 µT; 12 sham; 12 exposed at 50 µT, 12 exposed at 150 µT; 60 Hz |
Analgesia to 10 mg/kg morphine in paw-flick latency response to 50° C |
B field inhibited analgesia in dose-dependent manner; biggest effect, nocturnal at 150 µT |
|
Ossenkopp and Kavaliers 1987 |
CF-1 mice |
1-2 mon, 25-30 g |
5 per group |
60-min exposure, 0.5 Hz, 0.15-9 mT rotating field |
Analgesia to 10 mg/kg morphine effects of Ca2+ regulators |
Ca2+ channel antagonist reduced analgesia; Ca2+ channel agonist enhanced inhibition to B field |
Ca2+ drugs had no effect on morphine-induced analgesia |
TABLE A4-6 Magnetic-and Electric-Field Exposure and Neurobehavioral Effects
Study |
Species |
Developmental Stage |
Number per Group |
Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
Wolpaw et al. 1989 |
Macaque monkeys |
4-6 yr |
6 exposed, 4 sham |
3 kV/m, 10 µT; 10 kV/m, 30 µT; 30 kV/m, 90 µT |
Well-being, weight, blood chemistry, simple motor tasks, postmortem |
No effects |
|
Dowman et al. 1989 |
Macaque monkeys |
Adult, 5-7 kg |
6 exposed, 4 sham |
3 kV/m, 10 µT; 10 kV/m, 30 µT; 30 kV/m, 9 µT |
Auditory, visual, somatosensory, evoked response 2 times per week |
No effects; only somatosensory decrease in amplitude of late response for 10 kV/m and 30 kV/m |
|
Davis et al. 1984 |
CD-1 mice (male), LAF-1 mice (female) |
40-70 days |
Male mice: >100 exposed, >100 sham; female mice: 10 exposed |
1.65 T rms, 60 Hz, exposed 72 hr |
Passive avoidance; activity chemical-induced seizures |
No effects |
|
Hong et al. 1988 |
Sprague-Dawley rats |
Exposed 0-14 days, weaned 21 days, tested at 30 days |
46 exposed, 50 sham |
0.5 T, three exposures of 15 min/day for 2 wk |
Repeated reversal of position habit |
No effects |
|
Liboff et al. 1989 |
Rats |
Adult |
5 exposed, 0 sham |
26.1 µT, 0.139 µT, 60 Hz |
Performance on FR/BRL combined operant schedule |
DRL baseline disrupted, but not FR; threshold for effect 27 µT |
|
TABLE A4-7 Effects of Sinusoidal Electric-Field Exposure on Pineal Melatonin Production
Study |
Species |
Developmental Stage |
Number per Group |
Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
Wilson et al. 1981 |
Sprague-Dawley rats (male) |
Adult |
5 per group |
60 Hz, 0.7-1.9 kV/m for 20 hr/day for 30 days; sham-exposed controls |
Pineal NAT activity, pineal melatonin, pineal 5-methoxy-tryptophol |
No change in nighttime pineal NAT, reduction in nighttime melatonin, no change in nighttime 5- methoxytryptophol production |
Lack of correlation of NAT and melatonin unexpected; unusually low nighttime pineal melatonin |
Wilson et al. 1986 |
Sprague-Dawley rats (male) |
Adult |
10 per group |
60 Hz; 39 kV/m; 20 hr/day for 1, 2, 3, or 4 wk exposure; sham-exposed controls |
Pineal NAT activity, pineal melatonin |
After 3 and 4 wk exposure, nighttime pineal NAT and melatonin depressed; withdrawal of fields returned nighttime pineal NAT and melatonin to normal |
NAT activity and pineal melatonin decreased in parallel |
Reiter et al. 1988 |
Sprague-Dawley rats |
Fetal and newborn |
|
60 Hz; 10, 65, or 130 kV/m; exposed in utero and for 23 days after birth; sham-exposed controls |
Pineal melatonin |
Pineal melatonin depressed by all field strengths |
No dose-response relationship |
Grota et al. 1994 |
Sprague-Dawley rats |
Adult |
12 per group |
60 Hz; 35 kV; exposed 20 hr/day for 30 days; sham-exposed controls |
Pineal NAT activity, pineal HIOMT activity, pineal melatonin, blood melatonin |
No change in nighttime pineal NAT, HIOMT, or melatonin; depressed nighttime blood melatonin |
Exposures conducted with or without concurrent red-light exposure |
TABLE A4-8 Effects of Sinusoidal Magnetic-Field Exposure on the Pineal Gland in Animals in Morphologic Studies
Study |
Species |
Developmental Stage |
Number per Group |
Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
Milin et al. 1988 |
Wistar rats (male) |
Adult |
4-6 per group |
70-µT exposure for 20 min/day for 14 days; sham-exposed controls |
Pineal morphology, ultrastructural studies |
Decreased peptidergic activity of light pinealocytes |
Very high field strengths used; interpretation of results confounded by stress factors (rats restrained during exposure) |
Gimenez-Gonzalez et al. 1991 |
Wistar rats (male) |
Adult |
5 per group |
50 Hz; 5.2-mT exposure for 1, 3, 7, 15, or 21 days for 30 min/day; room controls |
Pineal morphology, light, and ultrastructural studies |
After 3 and 7 days, changes most prominent include decreased karyometric index and increased lipid in pineal cells |
Very high field strengths used; no quantitation of reported changes; no sham-exposed controls |
Martinez-Soriano et al. 1992 |
Wistar-King rats (male) |
Adult |
5 per group |
50 Hz; 5.2-mT exposure for 1, 3, 7, 15, or 21 days for 30 min/day; room controls |
Pineal morphology |
After 15 and 21 days, decrease in synaptic ribbon number in pineal cells |
Very high field strengths used; no sham controls; little internal consistency in the data |
Matsushima et al. 1993 |
Wistar-King rats (male) |
Adult |
6 per group |
50 Hz; 5-µT circularly polarized; continuous exposure (except for two 2-hr intervals per week) for 42 days; sham-exposed controls |
Pineal morphology, light microscopic studies |
Slight differences in pinealocyte size, especially the proximal and distal (but not central) portions of gland; changes seasonally dependent |
Regional and seasonal differences make interpretation of significance difficult |
TABLE A4-9 Effects of Sinusoidal Magnetic-Field Exposure on Pineal Melatonin Production
Study |
Species |
Developmental Stage |
Number per Group |
Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
Martinez-Soriano et al. 1992 |
Wistar rats (male) |
Adult |
5 per group |
50 Hz; 5.2 mT; exposure for 1, 3, 7, 15, or 21 days; 30 min/day; room controls |
Blood melatonin |
Depressed daytime blood melatonin at 15 days |
Blood melatonin depressed after 15 days but not after 21 days; very high field strengths used |
Kato et al. 1993 |
Wistar-King rats (male) |
Adult |
8 per group |
50 Hz; 0, 0.2, 0.1, 1, 5, 50, or 250 µT, circularly polarized field with continuous exposure for 42 days (except for two 2-hr intervals per week); sham-exposed controls |
Pineal melatonin, blood melatonin |
Field strength of 1 µT and above suppressed nighttime pineal melatonin and increased daytime melatonin; field strengths of 1 µT and above suppressed day time and nighttime blood melatonin |
Rise in daytime pineal melatonin after magnetic-field exposure is unusual |
Kato et al. 1994a |
Long-Evans rats |
Adult |
8 per group |
50 Hz; 0, 0.2, or 1 µT, circularly polarized field with continuous exposure for 42 days (except for two 2-hr intervals per week); |
Pineal melatonin, blood melatonin |
Field strengths of 0.2 µT depressed nighttime melatonin; 0.2 and 1 µT depressed daytime and nighttime blood melatonin |
Showed that pigmented rats (Long-Evans) respond to magnetic fields as do albino rats (Sprague-Dawley) |
Study |
Species |
Development Stage |
Number per Group |
Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
|
|
|
|
sham-exposed controls and room controls |
|
|
|
Kato et al. 1994b |
Wistar-King rats |
Adult |
8 per group |
50 Hz; 1 µT; horizontal or vertical; continuous exposure for 42 days (except for two 2-hr intervals per week); shamexposed controls and room controls |
Pineal melatonin, blood melatonin |
No effects on pineal or blood melatonin daytime or nighttime |
In contrast to circularly polarized 50-Hz, 1-µT fields, horizontal or vertical, 50-Hz, 1-µT fields are without effect on pineal and blood melatonin |
Yellon 1994 |
Djungarian hamsters (male and female) |
Adult |
4-6 per group |
60 Hz; 100 µT; horizontal for 15 min (beginning 2 hr before dark onset); sham-exposed controls |
Pineal melatonin, blood melatonin |
In two of three experiments, reduced and delayed rise in nighttime pineal and blood melatonin; in one experiment, no effect on nighttime pineal or blood melatonin |
Two of three identical experiments showing suppression of nighttime pineal and blood melatonin and one showing no effect; all animals were adults but varied widely in age |
TABLE A4-10 Effects of Combined Sinusoidal Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure on Pineal Melatonin Production
Study |
Species |
Developmental Stage |
Number per Group |
Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
Lee et al. 1993 |
Suffolk sheep (female) |
Juvenile |
10 per group |
Exposed under 500-kV power line: continuous 6-kV electric and 4-µT magnetic fields; controls 225 m from power line; continuous <10-V/m electric and <0.03-µT magnetic fields |
Blood melatonin between ages of 2 and 10 mon at 8 different times |
No effect on 24-hr melatonin rhythms between exposed and controls |
Thorough and well-supervised study |
Rogers et al. 1995 |
Papio cynocephalus baboons (male) |
Adult |
3 per group |
Random, intermittent (with rapid onset/offset) 30-kV/m electric and 100-µT magnetic field; animals served as own controls and run at another time in the same facility |
Blood melatonin |
Nighttime melatonin depressed in experiments |
Animals served as own controls; therefore, controls not run simultaneously |
TABLE A4-11 Effects of Different Types of Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure on Melatonin Metabolism in Humans
Study |
Species |
Developmental Stage |
Number per Group |
Exposure Characteristics |
End Points Evaluated |
Outcome |
Comments |
Prato et al. 1988-89 |
Human (male) |
Adult |
4 per group |
MRI exposure: concurrent static magnetic field, time-varying magnetic field, radio frequency fields, at night for 40.5 min; subjects served as own controls and were sham exposed on another night |
Blood melatonin |
No changes in blood melatonin during exposure |
Small number of subjects |
Schiffman et al. 1994 |
Human (male) |
Adult |
2 per group |
MRI exposure: 2.5-T magnetic field for 1 hr; subjects served as own controls and were sham exposed on another night; subjects also used as bright-light positive controls on another night |
Blood melatonin |
No effect on blood melatonin; bright light slightly reduced blood melatonin |
MRI exposure did not alter blood melatonin; bright-light exposure also had surprisingly little effect |
Wilson et al. 1990b |
Human (male and female) |
Adult |
28 or 14 per group |
Slept under snap safety switch (conventional) or continuous polymer wire (CPW) electric blankets for 6-10 wk |
Urinary 6-hydroxy melatonin sulfate |
At beginning or discontinuation of CPW blanket use, 7 subjects exhibited change in urinary 6-hydroxy melatonin sulfate; conventional blanket use caused no changes |
Implication is that at either beginning or discontinuation of electric-blanket use, nocturnal melatonin synthesis or metabolism might change |
TABLE A5-1 Residential Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure and Cancer: Study Structure
Study |
Geographic Area of Study |
Timea |
Number of Casesb |
Number of Controlsc |
Exposure Assessment Strategyd |
Studies of Childhood Cancer |
|||||
Wertheimer and Leeper 1979 |
United States (Denver, Colorado) |
1950-1973 |
344 cases, 491 residences |
344 cases, 472 residences |
Wire codes |
Fulton et al. 1980 |
United States (Rhode Island) |
1964-1978 |
119 cases, 209 residences |
240 cases, 240 residences |
Wire codes |
Tomenius 1986 |
Sweden (Stockholm County) |
1958-1973 |
716 cases, 1,172 residences |
716 cases, 1,015 residences |
Wire codes, spot field measurements |
Savitz et al. 1988 |
United States (Denver, Colorado) |
1976-1983 |
356 |
278 |
Wire codes, spot field measurements |
Coleman et al. 1989 |
United Kingdom (SE London) |
1965-1980 |
811 |
1,614 cancer controls, 254 population c ontrols |
Wire codes |
Myers et al. 1990 |
United Kingdom (Yorkshire health region) |
1970-1979 |
419 |
656 |
Distance from overhead lines, calculated fields |
London et al. 1991 |
United States (Los Angeles County) |
1980-1987 |
331 |
257 |
Spot field measurements, 24-hr field measurements, wire codes, household-appliance use |
Feychting and Ahlbom 1993 |
Sweden |
1960-1985 |
142 |
558 |
Wire codes, spot field measurements |
Study |
Geographic Area of Study |
Timea |
Number of Casesb |
Number of Controlsc |
Exposure Assessment Strategyd |
Studies of Childhood Cancer |
|||||
Olsen et al. 1993 |
Denmark |
1968-1986 |
1,707 |
4,788 |
Wire codes |
Verkasalo et al. 1993 |
Finland |
1970-1989 |
140 |
129,800 in cohort |
Wire codes |
Petridou et al. 1993 |
Greece |
|
|
|
Distance from substations and transmission lines |
Fajarado-Gutierrez et al. 1993 |
Mexico City |
|
81 |
77 |
Distance from power lines |
Studies of Adult Cancer |
|||||
Wertheimer and Leeper 1982 |
United States (Denver, Boulder, and Longmont, Colorado) |
1967-1975 (Boulder and Longmont) 1977 (Denver) |
1,179 |
1,179 |
Wire codes |
McDowall 1986 |
United Kingdom (East Anglia) |
1971-1983 |
213 |
7,631 in cohort |
Distances from substations and distribution lines |
Severson et al. 1988 |
United States (Washington) |
1981-1984 |
164 |
204 |
Wire codes, 24-hr field measurements, spot field measurements |
TABLE A5-2 Residential Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure and Cancer: Case and Control Selection
Study |
Case Definition: Age Rangea |
Type of Cancerb |
Other Restrictionsc |
Method of Control Selectiond |
Studies of Childhood Cancer |
||||
Wertheimer and Leeper 1979 |
0-18 yr |
All cancer deaths |
Denver-area resident, Colorado birth certificate |
Birth certificate |
Fulton et al. 1980 |
0-20 yr |
Leukemia |
Patient in R.I. hospital |
Birth certificate |
Tomenius 1986 |
0-18 yr |
All tumors |
Born and diagnosed in Stockholm county |
Birth registry |
Savitz et al. 1988 |
0-14 yr |
All cancers |
Resident of metropolitan Denver |
Random digit dialing |
Coleman et al. 1989 |
All ages |
Leukemia |
Resident of four borough areas of London |
Electoral roll of 1975 for population control, cancer registry for cancer controls |
Myers et al. 1990 |
0-14 yr |
Malignant tumors |
Born in Yorkshire health region |
Birth registry |
London et al. 1991 |
0-10 yr |
Leukemia |
Resident of Los Angeles County |
Friends of controls, random digit dialing |
Feychting and Ahlbom 1993 |
0-15 yr |
All cancers |
Resident of homes during 1960-85 within 300 m of overhead power lines |
Nested case-control study, random selection from study base |
Olsen et al. 1993 |
0-14 yr |
Leukemia, malignant lymphoma, tumors of central nervous system |
Resident of Denmark |
Danish population register |
Petridou et al. 1993 |
|
|
|
|
Fajarado-Gutierrez et al. 1993 |
|
Leukemia |
Referral hospitals |
Hospital controls |
TABLE A5-3 Residential Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure and Cancer: Exposure Assessment
Study |
Operational Definition of Exposurea |
Blinding of Data Collectorb |
Prevalence of Increased Exposure Among Controlsc |
Residence of Interestd |
Studies of Childhood Cancer |
||||
Wertheimer and Leeper 1979 |
Two exposure categories based on distance of home from substations or overhead power lines and on type of line |
No |
21.8% of control households |
Birth and death residence when available |
Fulton et al. 1980 |
Estimated field exposure for each household, based on the number, type, and distance of the wires from the house; exposure categories divided into quartiles based on controls |
Not stated |
50% of control households |
All residences before diagnosis (analysis based on residences, not individuals) |
Tomenius 1986 |
Magnetic-field measurements: low exposure at <0.3 µT and high exposure at ≥ 0.3 µT; five exposure categories based on type of electric construction and distance from the house |
Yes |
200 kV wire and =0.3 µT: 0.41% all control households; 200 kV wire: 1.34% all control households; = 0.3 µT 1.4% of control households |
Residence at birth and at diagnosis |
Savitz et al. 1988 |
Field measurements two categorization methods |
Field measurements: no |
Field measurements: >0.25 µT (at low power use): 4.3% of controls >0.25 µT (at high power use): 6.5% of controls >0.2 µT (low power use): 7.7% of controls >0.2 µT (high power use): 14.1% of controls |
Residence at diagnosis |
|
Five exposure categories based on wire current configuration and distance from house |
Wire codes: yes |
Wire codes: Very high (at time of diagnosis): 3.2% of controls Very high (at 2 yr before diagnosis): 1.4% of controls |
|
Coleman et al. 1989 |
Four exposure categories based on distance of nearest power source, power line, or substation |
For cases and cancer controls: yes For population controls: no |
Distance of nearest power line: <25 m, 0.1% of cancer controls |
Residence at diagnosis |
|
|
|
Distance of nearest substation: <25 m, 3.6% of cancer controls |
|
|
Estimated field based on wire codes, peak electric load, and distance of electric source from home. |
|
Estimated field for nearest substation: =500 kV, 14.4% of controls |
|
|
|
|
Sum of all weighted exposure for all substations within 200 m: in the high category, 3.3% of controls |
|
Myers et al. 1990 |
Six exposure categories based on distance of closest overhead line of any voltage |
Yes |
Distance from overhead line: <25 m, 2.9% of controls |
Residence at birth |
|
Estimated field based on distance of electric source and of maximum electric load |
|
Estimated field: = 0.1 µT, 0.69% of controls |
|
London et al. 1991 |
24-hr field measurements: four categories based on 50th, 75th, 90th percentiles of all study subjects |
Yes |
24-hr measurements: =0.268 µ;T, 7.6% of controls |
Longest residence occupied during the period 9 mon before birth up to approximately 1 yr before diagnosis |
Study |
Operational Definition of Exposurea |
Blinding of Data Collectorb |
Prevalence of Increased Exposure Among Controlsc |
Residence of Interestd |
Studies of Childhood Cancer |
||||
|
Spot field measurements: four categories based on 50th, 75th, 90th percentiles of all study subjects |
|
Spot field measurements: =0.125 µT, 10.1% of controls |
|
|
Wire codes: five categories based on distance of home from overhead lines and type of line or electric facility. |
|
Wire codes: very high category, 11.7% of controls |
|
Fajarado-Gutierrez et al. 1993 |
Distance from electric facilities |
NA |
<20 m from distribution lines, 10% of controls |
|
Feychting and Ahlbom 1993 |
Estimated field exposure based on distance from electric towers, height of tower, distance between phases, ordering of phases, current load, distance from overhead line; (two categorization methods used) |
Yes |
Estimated fields: =0.3 µT, 32/554 = fraction of controls; = 0.2 µT, 46/554 = fraction of controls |
Residence at diagnosis or last home occupied by case within the study area |
|
Spot field measurements: used same exposure categories as for estimated field exposure method |
|
Spot field measurements: = 0.2 µT, 70/344 = fraction of controls |
|
|
Distance to power lines: high exposure: 0-5 m low exposure: >100 m |
|
Distance from line: 34/554 = fraction of controls |
|
Olsen et al. 1993 |
Estimated average field and cumulative field dose based on distance of installation from home, type of line, distance between towers, height of line, distance between phases, current load, duration of exposure |
Yes |
Estimated fields: =0.25 µT, 11/4,788 = % controls; =0.40 µT, 3/4,788 = fraction of controls |
All residences occupied 9 mon before birth |
Verkasalo et al. 1993 |
Estimated field exposure and cumulative field exposure based on distance of home from power lines, type of line, distance between phases, current load, duration of exposure |
Not stated |
NA |
Residence during 1979-89 |
Studies of Adult Cancer |
||||
Wertheimer and Leeper 1982 |
Four levels of exposure based on type of power line and distance of line from the home |
Only for 12% of cases and controls |
Very high current configuration, 6.3% of controls |
Residence of longest duration 3-10 yr before diagnosis |
McDowall 1986 |
Distance of electric installation from the house |
NA |
NA |
Residence occupied in 1971 (0-12 yr before diagnosis) |
Severson et al. 1988 |
Four exposure categories based on type of power line and distance from house |
Wire codes: yes |
Wire codes: very high (longest residence), 5.5% of controls; very high (for residence closest to reference date), 6.0% of controls |
Field measurements: residence at diagnosis |
|
Estimated field exposure based on type of line, distance from home, and current flow |
Field measurements: no |
Estimated fields: >0.2 µT (longest residence), 16.4% of controls; >0.2 µT (for residence closest to reference date), 15.7% of controls |
Wire codes: residence of longest duration 3-10 yr before diagnosis |
Study |
Operational Definition of Exposurea |
Blinding of Data Collectorb |
Prevalence of Increased Exposure Among Controlsc |
Residence of Interestd |
Studies of Adult Cancer |
||||
Youngson et al. 1991 |
Estimated field strength based on number, type of wire, distance from home, and current flow |
Yes |
Estimated field: =0.3 µT, 0.25% of controls |
Residence at diagnosis |
|
Five categories based on distance of home from nearest overhead power line |
|
Distance from overhead line: <25 m, 2.0% of controls |
|
Schreiber et al. 1993 |
Exposure categories based on distance of home from power line; high exposure defined as within 100 m; low exposure defined as greater than 100 m from power line |
Not stated |
NA |
Residence occupied during follow-up |
Feychting and Ahlbom 1994 |
Estimated field exposure based on distance from electric towers, height of tower, distance between phases, ordering of phases, current load, distance from overhead line; two categorization methods used |
Yes |
Estimated fields: =0.2 µT, 8% of controls |
Residence at diagnosis or last home occupied by case within the study area |
|
|
|
Cumulative exposure: =3 µT, 4% of controls |
|
|
Spot field measurements: used same exposure categories as for estimated field exposure method |
|
Spot measurements: =0.2 µT, 21% of controls |
|
TABLE A5-4 Residential Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure and Childhood Leukemia: Results
Study |
Exposure Category |
Number of Cases |
Number of Controls |
Crude ORa |
95% CIb |
Adjusted ORc |
Adjusted 95% CId |
Potential Confounders Addressede |
Wertheimer Leeper 1979 |
Birth addresses: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Age, sex, socioeconomic status (SES), urban residence, family pattern, traffic congestion, onset age |
|
HCCf |
52 |
29 |
2.3 |
1.3-3.9 |
|
|
|
|
LCCg |
84 |
107 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Death addresses: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
HCC |
63 |
29 |
3.0 |
1.8-5.0 |
|
|
|
|
LCC |
92 |
126 |
|
|
|
|
|
Fulton et al. 1980 |
Very high |
47.5 |
56.3 |
1.0 |
0.6-1.8 |
|
|
Onset age, SES, age |
|
High |
55.4 |
56.3 |
1.2 |
0.7-2.1 |
|
|
|
|
Low |
49.5 |
56.3 |
1.1 |
0.6-1.9 |
|
|
|
|
Very low |
45.5 |
56.3 |
|
|
|
|
|
Tomenius 1996 |
Total residences: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Age, sex, church district of birth |
|
=0.3 µT |
4 |
10 |
0.3 |
0.1-1.1 |
|
|
|
|
<0.3 µT |
239 |
202 |
|
|
|
|
|
Savitz et al. 1988 |
Field measurements for low-power conditions: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Maternal age, father's education, family income, maternal smoking in pregnancy, traffic density, age, sex, geographic area of residence |
|
>0.2 µT |
5 |
16 |
1.9 |
0.7-5.6 |
1.8-2.4 |
|
|
|
<0.2 µT |
31 |
191 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Field measurements for high-power conditions: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
>0.2 µT |
7 |
29 |
1.4 |
0.6-3.5 |
|
|
|
|
<0.2 µT |
30 |
172 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Two-level wire codes: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
High |
27 |
52 |
1.5 |
0.9-2.0 |
|
|
|
|
Low |
70 |
207 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Wire codes: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Very high |
7 |
8 |
2.8 |
0.9-8.0 |
|
|
|
|
Very low |
28 |
88 |
|
|
|
|
|
Coleman et al. 1993 |
Distance from substation: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Age, sex, county of residence, year of diagnosis |
|
0-24 m |
3 |
3 |
1.6 |
0.3-8.4 |
|
|
|
|
25-49 m |
11 |
12 |
1.5 |
0.6-3.6 |
|
|
|
|
50-99 m |
22 |
48 |
0.7 |
0.4-1.4 |
|
|
|
|
=100 m |
48 |
78 |
|
|
|
|
|
London et al. 1991 |
24-hr measurements: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Pesticide use, hair dryer use, black and white TV use, parental occupational exposures, other appliance use, other environment exposures, residence type, SES |
|
0-0.067 µT |
85 |
69 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.068-0.118 µT |
35 |
42 |
0.7 |
0.4-1.2 |
0.7 |
0.4-1.2 |
|
|
0.119-0.267 µT |
24 |
22 |
0.9 |
0.5-1.7 |
0.9 |
0.5-1.9 |
|
|
=0.268 µT |
20 |
11 |
1.5 |
0.7-3.3 |
1.7 |
0.7-4.0 |
|
|
Spot measurements: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
appliance use, other |
|
0-0.031 µT |
67 |
56 |
|
|
|
|
environmental |
|
0.032-0.067 µT |
34 |
28 |
1.0 |
0.6-1.9 |
|
|
|
|
0.068-0.124 µT |
23 |
14 |
1.4 |
0.7-2.9 |
|
|
|
|
= 0.125 µT |
16 |
11 |
1.2 |
0.5-2.8 |
|
|
|
|
Wire codes: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Buried |
11 |
11 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Very low |
20 |
27 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Low |
58 |
75 |
1.0 |
0.5-1.7 |
0.8 |
0.4-1.5 |
|
|
High |
80 |
68 |
1.4 |
0.8-2.6 |
1.5 |
0.8-2.7 |
|
|
Very high |
42 |
24 |
2.2 |
0.5-1.7 |
1.7 |
0.8-3.7 |
|
Feychting and Ahlbom 1993 |
Estimated fields: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sex, age, county, residence type, diagnosis year, SES NO2 |
|
= 0.3 µT |
7 |
32 |
3.8 |
(1.4-9.3) |
— |
|
|
|
0.1-0.29 µT |
4 |
47 |
1.5 |
(0.4-4.2) |
— |
|
|
|
= 0.2 µT |
7 |
46 |
2.7 |
(1.0-6.3) |
3.1 |
(1.1-8.6) |
|
|
0.1-0.19 µT |
4 |
33 |
2.1 |
(0.6-6.1) |
1.5 |
(0.3-7.4) |
|
|
<0.09 µT |
27 |
475 |
— |
|
|
|
|
|
Distance to power line: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<51 m |
6 |
34 |
2.9 |
(1.0-7.3) |
— |
|
|
|
51 m-100 m |
6 |
89 |
1.1 |
(0.4-2.7) |
— |
|
|
|
=101 m |
26 |
431 |
— |
|
|
|
|
Study |
Exposure Category |
Number of Cases |
Number of Controls |
Crude ORa |
95% CIb |
Adjusted ORc |
Adjusted 95% CId |
Potential Confounders Addressede |
|
Spot measurements: |
4 |
70 |
0.6 |
(0.2-1.8) |
— |
|
|
|
=0.2 µT |
1 |
67 |
0.2 |
(0.0-0.9) |
— |
|
|
|
0.1-0.19 µT |
19 |
207 |
— |
|
|
|
|
|
<0.1 µT |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Olsen et al. 1993 |
Estimated Fields: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sex, onset age, age |
|
= 0.4 µT |
3 |
1 |
— |
— |
6.0 |
(0.8-4.4) |
|
|
0.1-0.39 µT |
1 |
7 |
— |
— |
0.3 |
(0.0-2.0) |
|
|
= 0.25 µT |
5 |
4 |
— |
— |
1.5 |
(0.3-6.7) |
|
|
0.1-0.24 µT |
1 |
4 |
— |
— |
0.5 |
(0.1-4.3) |
|
|
=0.1 µT |
4 |
8 |
— |
— |
1.0 |
(0.3-3.3) |
|
|
<0.1 µT |
829 |
1658 |
— |
— |
— |
|
|
Study |
Exposure |
Cases observed |
Cases Expectedh |
Standardized Incidence Ratio |
95% CI |
Potential Confounders Addressed |
||
Verkasalo et al. 1993 |
= 0.2 µT |
3 |
1.93 |
1.6 |
0.3-4.5 |
Age, sex |
||
|
0.01-0.19 µT |
32 |
36.1 |
0.9 |
0.6-1.3 |
|
||
|
= 0.4 µT-yr |
3 |
|
|
1.2 |
0.3-3.6 |
|
|
|
0.01-0.39 µT-yr |
32 |
|
|
0.9 |
0.6-1.3 |
|
|
a Odds ratio calculated without consideration of possible confounders (ratio of exposed to unexposed cases divided by the ratio of exposed to unexposed controls). b 95% confidence intervals for the odds ratio calculated without consideration of possible confounders. c Odds radio adjusted statistically for possible confounding factors. d Corresponding confidence intervals calculated for the odds ratio adjusted for possible confounding factors. e Includes all factors considered to be potential confounders whether or not statistical adjustments were made for them. f HCC, high current configuration. g LCC, low current configuration. h Cases expected on the basis of incidence data for the disease in the general population. |
TABLE A5-5 Residential Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure and Childhood Brain Tumors: Results
Study |
Exposure Category |
Number of Cases |
Number of Controls |
Crude ORa |
95% CIb |
Adjusted ORc |
Adjusted 95% CId |
Potential Confounders Addressede |
Wertheimer and Leeper 1979 |
Birth addresses: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Age of onset, sex, socioeconomic status (SES), urban residence, family pattern, traffic congestion |
|
HCCf |
22 |
12 |
2.4 |
1.0-5.4 |
|
|
|
|
LCCg |
35 |
45 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Death addresses: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
HCC |
30 |
17 |
2.4 |
1.2-5.0 |
|
|
|
|
LCC |
36 |
49 |
|
|
|
|
|
Tomenius 1986 |
Total residences: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Age, sex, church district of |
|
=0.3 µT |
13 |
3 |
3.9 |
1.1-13.7 |
|
|
|
|
<0.3 µT |
281 |
250 |
|
|
|
|
|
Savitz et al. 1988 |
Field measurements for low-power condition: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Maternal age, father's education, family income, maternal smoking in pregnancy, traffic density, age, sex geographic area of residence |
|
>0.2 µT |
2 |
16 |
1.0 |
0.2-4.8 |
|
|
|
|
<0.2 µT |
23 |
191 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Field measurements for |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
high-power conditions: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
>0.2 µT |
3 |
29 |
0.8 |
0.2-2.9 |
|
|
|
|
<0.2 µT |
22 |
175 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Two-level wire codes: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
High |
20 |
52 |
2.0 |
1.1-3.8 |
|
|
|
|
Low |
39 |
207 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Wire codes: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Very high |
3 |
8 |
1.9 |
0.5-8.0 |
|
|
|
|
Very low |
17 |
88 |
|
|
|
|
|
Study |
Exposure Category |
Number of Cases |
Number of Controls |
Crude ORa |
95% CIb |
Adjusted ORc |
Adjusted 95% CId |
Potential Confounders Addressede |
Olsen et al. 1993 |
Estimated fields: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sex, onset age, age |
|
=0.4 µT |
2 |
1 |
|
|
6.0 |
0.7-44 |
|
|
0.1-0.39 µT |
1 |
8 |
|
|
0.4 |
0.1-2.8 |
|
|
=0.25 µT |
2 |
6 |
|
|
1.0 |
0.2-5.0 |
|
|
0.1-0.24 µT |
1 |
3 |
|
|
1.0 |
0.1-9.6 |
|
|
=0.1 µT |
3 |
9 |
|
|
1.0 |
0.3-3.7 |
|
|
<0.1 µT |
621 |
1,863 |
|
|
|
|
|
Feychting and Ahlbom 1993 |
Estimated fields: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sex, age, county, residence type, diagnosis year, SES, NO2 |
|
=0.3 µT |
2 |
32 |
1.0 |
(0.2-3.9) |
|
|
|
|
0.1-0.29 µT |
2 |
47 |
0.7 |
(0.1-2.6) |
|
|
|
|
=0.2 µT |
2 |
46 |
0.7 |
(0.1-2.7) |
|
|
|
|
0.1-0.19 µT |
2 |
33 |
1.0 |
(0.2-3.8) |
|
|
|
|
<0.1 µT |
29 |
475 |
— |
— |
|
|
|
|
Distance to power line: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<50 m |
1 |
34 |
0.5 |
(0.0-2.8) |
|
|
|
|
50 m-100 m |
7 |
89 |
1.4 |
(0.5-3.1) |
|
|
|
|
>100 m |
25 |
431 |
— |
— |
|
|
|
|
Spot measurements: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
>0.2 µT |
5 |
70 |
1.5 |
(0.4-4.9) |
|
|
|
|
0.1-0.2 µT |
8 |
67 |
2.5 |
(0.9-6.6) |
|
|
|
|
<0.1 µT |
10 |
207 |
— |
— |
|
|
|
Study |
Exposure |
Cases Observed |
Cases Expectedh |
Standardized Incidence Ratio |
95% CI |
Potential Confounders Addressed |
Verkasalo et al. 1993 |
Estimated fields: |
|
|
|
|
Age, sex |
|
=0.2 µT |
4 |
2.16 |
2.3 |
0.8-5.4 |
|
|
0.01-0.19 µT |
34 |
39.82 |
0.9 |
0.6-1.2 |
|
|
=0.4 µT-yr |
7 |
|
2.3 |
0.9-4.8 |
|
|
0.01-0.39 µT-yr |
32 |
|
0.8 |
0.6-1.2 |
|
a Odds ratio calculated without consideration of possible confounders (ratio of exposed to unexposed cases divided by the ratio of exposed to unexposed controls). b 95% confidence intervals for the odds ratio calculated without consideration of possible confounders. c Odds radio adjusted statistically for possible confounding factors. d Corresponding confidence intervals calculated for the odds ratio adjusted for possible confounding factors. e Includes all factors considered to be potential confounders whether or not statistical adjustments were made for them. f HCC, high current configuration. g LCC, low current configuration. h Cases expected on the basis of incidence data for the disease in the general population. |
TABLE A5-6 Residential Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure and Childhood Lymphoma: Results
Study |
Exposure Category |
Number of Cases |
Number of Controls |
Crude ORa |
95% CIb |
Adjusted ORc |
Adjusted 95% CId |
Potential Confounders Addressede |
Wertheimer and Leeper 1979 |
Birth addresses: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Age of onset, sex, socioeconomic status (SES), urban residence, family pattern, traffic congestion |
|
HCCf |
10 |
5 |
2.5 |
0.7-8.4 |
|
|
|
|
LCCg |
21 |
26 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Death addresses: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
HCC |
18 |
11 |
2.1 |
0.8-5.2 |
|
|
|
|
LCC |
26 |
33 |
|
|
|
|
|
Tomenius 1986 |
Total residences: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Age, sex, church district of birth |
|
=0.3 µT |
2 |
1 |
1.8 |
0.2-19.8 |
|
|
|
|
<0.3 µT |
130 |
115 |
|
|
|
|
|
Savitz et al. 1988 |
Field measurements for low-power conditions: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Maternal age, father's education, family income, maternal smoking in pregnancy, traffic density, age sex geographic area of residence |
|
>0.2 µT |
2 |
16 |
2.2 |
0.5-10.3 |
3.2 |
|
|
|
<0.2 µT |
11 |
191 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Field measurements for high-power conditions: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
>0.2 µT |
3 |
29 |
1.8 |
0.5-6.9 |
|
|
|
|
<0.2 µT |
10 |
175 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Two-level wire codes: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
High |
5 |
52 |
0.8 |
0.3-2.2 |
|
|
|
|
Low |
25 |
207 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Wire codes: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Very high |
3 |
8 |
3.3 |
0.8-13.7 |
|
|
|
|
Very low |
10 |
88 |
|
|
|
|
|
Olsen et al. 1993 |
Estimated field: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sex, onset age, age |
|
≥0.4 µT |
1 |
1 |
|
|
5.0 |
0.3-82 |
|
|
0.1-0.39 µT |
2 |
2 |
|
|
5.0 |
0.7-36 |
|
|
≥0.25 µT |
1 |
1 |
|
|
5.0 |
0.3-82 |
|
|
0.1-0.24 µT |
2 |
2 |
|
|
5.0 |
0.7-36 |
|
|
≥0.1 µT |
3 |
3 |
|
|
5.0 |
1.0-25 |
|
|
<0.1 µT |
247 |
1,247 |
|
|
|
|
|
Feychting and Ahlbom 1993 |
Estimated fields: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
sex, age, county, residence type, diagnosis year, SES, NO2 |
|
≥0.3 µT |
1 |
32 |
0.9 |
0.0-5.4 |
|
|
|
|
0.1-0.29 µT |
2 |
47 |
1.3 |
0.2-5.0 |
|
|
|
|
≥0.2 µT |
2 |
46 |
1.3 |
0.2-5.1 |
|
|
|
|
0.1-0.19 µT |
1 |
33 |
0.9 |
0.0-5.2 |
|
|
|
|
<0.09 µT |
16 |
475 |
|
|
|
|
|
Study |
Exposure |
Cases Observed |
Cases Expectedh |
Standardized Incidence Ratio |
95% CI |
Potential Confounders Addressed |
||
Verkasalo et al. 1993 |
≥0.2 µT |
0 |
0.88 |
0.9 |
0-4.2 |
Age, sex |
||
|
0.01-0.19 µT-yr |
15 |
16.55 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
≥0.4 µT-yr |
1 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.01-0.39 µT |
14 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
a Odds ratio calculated without consideration of possible confounders (ratio of exposed to unexposed cases divided by the ratio of exposed to unexposed controls). b 95% confidence intervals for the odds ratio calculated without consideration of possible confounders. c Odds radio adjusted statistically for possible confounding factors. d Corresponding confidence intervals calculated for the odds ratio adjusted for possible confounding factors. e Includes all factors considered to be potential confounders whether or not statistical adjustments were made for them. f HCC, high current configuration. g LCC, low current configuration. h Cases expected on the basis of incidence data for the disease in the general population. |
TABLE A5-7 Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure and Childhood Cancers Other than Leukemia and Brain Cancer: Results
Study |
Exposure Category |
Number of Cases |
Number of Controls |
Crude ORa |
95% CIb |
Potential Confounders Addressedc |
Wertheimer and Leeper 1979 |
Birth addresses: |
|
|
|
|
Age of onset, sex, socioeconomic status, urban residence, family pattern, traffic congestion |
|
HCCd |
17 |
9 |
2.4 |
0.9-6.1 |
|
|
LCCe |
31 |
39 |
|
|
|
|
Death addresses: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
HCC |
18 |
17 |
1.1 |
0.5-2.4 |
|
|
LCC |
45 |
46 |
|
|
|
Tomenius 1996 |
Total residences: |
|
|
|
|
Age, sex, church district of birth |
|
=0.3 µT |
11 |
0 |
|
|
|
|
<0.3 µT |
352 |
309 |
|
|
|
Savitz et al. 1988 |
Field measurements for low-power conditions: |
|
|
|
|
Maternal age, father's education, family income, maternal smoking in pregnancy, traffic density, age, sex, geographic area of residence |
|
>0.2 µT |
1 |
16 |
0.3 |
0.4-2.1 |
|
|
<0.2 µT |
39 |
191 |
|
|
|
|
Field measurements for high-power conditions: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
>0.2 µT |
3 |
29 |
0.5 |
0.1-1.7 |
|
|
<0.2 µT |
37 |
175 |
|
|
|
|
Two-level wire codes: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
High |
28 |
52 |
1.5 |
0.9-2.6 |
|
|
Low |
74 |
207 |
|
|
|
|
Wire codes: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Very high |
4 |
8 |
1.6 |
0.5-5.8 |
|
|
Very low |
27 |
88 |
|
|
|
Study |
Exposure |
Cases Observed |
Cases Expectedf |
Crude ORa |
95% CIb |
Potential Confounders Addressedc |
Verkasalo et al. 1993 |
≥ 0.2 µT |
3 |
2.42 |
1.2 |
0.3-3.6 |
Age, sex |
|
0.01-0.19 |
48 |
44.7 |
1.1 |
0.8-1.4 |
|
|
≥0.4 µT-yr |
4 |
|
1.0 |
0.3-2.6 |
|
|
0.01-0.39 |
47 |
|
1.1 |
0.8-1.4 |
|
a Odds ratio calculated without consideration of possible confounders (ratio of exposed to unexposed cases divided by the ratio of exposed to unexposed controls). b 95% confidence interval for the odds ratio calculated without consideration of possible confounders. c Includes all factors considered to be potential confounders whether or not statistical adjustments were made for them. d HCC, high current configuration. e LCC, low current configuration. f Cases expected on the basis of incidence data for the disease in the general population. |
TABLE A5-8 Residential Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure and All Childhood Cancers: Results
Study |
Exposure Category |
Number of Cases |
Number of Controls |
Crude ORa |
95% CIb |
Adjusted ORc |
Potential Confounders Addressedd |
Wertheimer and Leeper 1979 |
Birth address: |
|
|
|
|
|
Age of onset, sex, traffic congestion, socioeconomic status (SES), urban residence, family pattern |
|
HCCe |
101 |
55 |
2.3 |
1.6-3.4 |
|
|
|
LCCf |
171 |
217 |
|
|
|
|
|
Death address: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
HCC |
129 |
74 |
2.2 |
1.6-3.1 |
|
|
|
LCC |
199 |
254 |
|
|
|
|
Tomenius 1986 |
Total residences: |
|
|
|
|
|
Age, sex, church district of birth, permanent vs. transient residence |
|
≥0.3 µT |
34 |
14 |
2.1 |
1.1-4.0 |
|
|
|
<0.3 µT |
1,095 |
955 |
|
|
|
|
Savitz et al. 1988 |
Field measurements for low-power conditions: |
|
|
|
|
|
Maternal age, father's education, family income, maternal smoking in pregnancy, traffic density, age, sex, geographic area of residence |
|
>0.2 µT |
13 |
16 |
1.4 |
0.6-2.9 |
(1.2-1.5) |
|
|
<0.2 µT |
115 |
191 |
|
|
|
|
|
Field measurements for high-power conditions: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
>0.2 µT |
19 |
29 |
1.0 |
0.6-2.0 |
|
|
|
<0.2 µT |
110 |
175 |
|
|
|
|
|
Two-level wire codes: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
High |
89 |
52 |
1.5 |
1.0-2.3 |
|
|
|
Low |
231 |
207 |
|
|
|
|
|
Wire codes: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Very high |
19 |
8 |
2.2 |
1.0-5.2 |
|
|
|
Very low |
95 |
88 |
|
|
|
|
Myers et al. 1990 |
Distance to power line: |
|
|
|
|
Age, sex, residence type, county of birth |
|
<25 m |
13 |
17 |
1.1 |
0.5-2.6 |
|
|
≥25 m <50 m |
7 |
15 |
0.7 |
0.3-2.0 |
|
|
≥50 m <75 m |
10 |
17 |
1.0 |
0.5-2.2 |
|
|
≥75 m <100 m |
8 |
9 |
1.5 |
0.6-4.0 |
|
|
<100 m |
38 |
58 |
1.0 |
0.6-1.7 |
|
|
≥100 m |
336 |
530 |
|
|
|
|
Estimated field: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
≥0.1 µT |
1 |
4 |
0.4 |
0.04-4.1 |
|
|
≥0.03 µT <0.1 µT |
8 |
4 |
2.6 |
0.8-9.0 |
|
|
≥0.01 µT <0.03 µT |
7 |
13 |
1.0 |
0.4-2.5 |
|
|
≥0.01 µT <0.1 µT |
15 |
17 |
1.4 |
0.6-3.0 |
|
|
≥0.01 µT |
16 |
21 |
1.2 |
0.6-2.6 |
|
|
<0.01 µT |
358 |
567 |
|
|
|
Feychting and Ahlbom 1993 |
Estimated field: |
|
|
|
|
Sex, age, county, residence type, diagnosis year, SES, NO2 |
|
≥0.3 µT |
10 |
32 |
1.3 |
0.6-2.7 |
|
|
0.1-0.29 µT |
14 |
47 |
1.2 |
0.6-2.3 |
|
|
≥0.2 µT |
12 |
46 |
1.1 |
0.5-2.1 |
|
|
0.1-0.19 µT |
12 |
33 |
1.5 |
0.7-2.9 |
|
|
<0.1 µT |
117 |
475 |
|
|
|
Olsen et al. 1993 |
Estimated field: |
|
|
|
|
Age, sex, age at diagnosis |
|
≥0.4 µT |
6 |
3 |
5.6 |
1.6-19 |
|
|
0.1-0.39 µT |
4 |
17 |
0.7 |
0.2-2.0 |
|
|
≥0.25 µT |
6 |
11 |
1.5 |
0.6-4.1 |
|
|
0.1-0.24 µT |
4 |
9 |
1.3 |
0.4-4.1 |
|
|
≥0.1 µT |
10 |
20 |
1.4 |
0.7-3.0 |
|
|
<0.1 µT |
4 |
21 |
0.6 |
0.2-17 |
|
|
Not exposed, distant |
16 |
49 |
0.9 |
0.5-1.6 |
|
|
Not exposed |
1,677 |
4,698 |
|
|
|
Study |
Exposure Category |
Cases Observed |
Cases Expectedg |
Standardized Incidence Ratio |
95% CIb |
Potential Confounders Addressedd |
Verkasalo et al. 1993 |
≥ 0.2 µT |
11 |
7.39 |
1.5 |
0.7-2.7 |
Age, sex |
|
0.01-0.19 µT |
129 |
137.17 |
0.9 |
0.8-1.1 |
|
|
≥ 0.4 µT-yr |
15 |
|
1.4 |
0.8-2.3 |
|
|
0.01-0.39 µT-yr |
125 |
|
0.9 |
0.8-1.1 |
|
a Odds ratio calculated without consideration of possible confounders (ratio of exposed to unexposed cases divided by the ratio of exposed to unexposed controls). b 95% confidence intervals for the odds ratio calculated without consideration of possible confounders. c Odds radio adjusted statistically for possible confounding factors. d Includes all factors considered to be potential confounders whether or not statistical adjustments were made for them. e HCC, high current configuration. f LCC, low current configuration. g Cases expected on the basis of incidence data for the disease in the general population. |
TABLE A5-9 Residential Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure and Cancer: Results of Cohort Studies Including Subjects of All Ages
Study |
Exposure Description |
Number of Cases Observed |
SMRa |
95% CIb |
Potential Confounders Addressedc |
McDowell 1986 |
Distance from power line for Leukemia: |
|
|
|
Age, sex, calendar time |
|
0-14 m |
1 |
1.4 |
0.0-8.0 |
|
|
15-34 m |
2 |
0.8 |
0.1-2.8 |
|
|
35-50 m |
3 |
1.2 |
0.3-3.5 |
|
|
Lymphoma: |
|
|
|
|
|
0-14 m |
3 |
3.3 |
0.7-9.7 |
|
|
15-34 m |
2 |
0.6 |
0.1-2.1 |
|
|
35-50 m |
5 |
1.5 |
0.5-3.4 |
|
|
All cancers: |
|
|
|
|
|
0-14 m |
27 |
1.0 |
0.7-1.5 |
|
|
15-34 m |
97 |
1.1 |
0.9-1.3 |
|
|
35-50 m |
89 |
1.0 |
0.8-1.2 |
|
Schreiber et al. 1993 |
Wire codes: |
|
|
|
Age, sex |
|
High exposure |
0 |
|
|
|
|
Low exposure |
3 |
1.3 |
0.3-3.9 |
|
|
Hodgkin's disease: |
|
|
|
|
|
High exposure |
2 |
4.7 |
0.5-17.0 |
|
|
Low exposure |
0 |
|
|
|
|
Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: |
|
|
|
|
|
High exposure |
2 |
1.8 |
0.2-6.4 |
|
|
Low exposure |
0 |
|
|
|
|
Brain tumors: |
|
|
|
|
|
High exposure |
0 |
|
|
|
|
Low exposure |
3 |
2.0 |
0.4-5.7 |
|
Study |
Exposure Description |
Number of Cases Observed |
SMRa |
95% CIb |
Potential Confounders Addressedc |
|
All cancers: |
|
|
|
|
|
High exposure |
46 |
0.9 |
0.6-1.1 |
|
|
Low exposure |
65 |
0.9 |
0.7-1.2 |
|
a Standard mortality ratio, ratio of observed number of deaths to the number expected based on mortality in the general population. b 95% confidence intervals for the odds ratio calculated without consideration of possible confounders. c Includes all factors considered to be potential confounders whether or not statistical adjustments were made for them. |
TABLE A5-10 Residential Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure and Adult Leukemia: Results
Study |
Exposure Description |
Number of Cases |
Number of Controls |
Crude ORa |
95% CIb |
Potential Confounders Addressedc |
|
Wire codes at time of longest residence: |
Age, sex, family income, race, cigarette smoking |
||||
|
Very high |
5 |
6 |
0.8 |
0.2-2.9 |
|
|
High |
21 |
23 |
0.8 |
0.4-1.7 |
|
|
Low |
21 |
37 |
0.6 |
0.3-1.2 |
|
|
Very low |
42 |
44 |
|
|
|
|
Wire codes at residence closest to reference date: |
|
||||
|
Very high |
5 |
7 |
0.8 |
0.2-2.9 |
|
|
High |
24 |
19 |
1.4 |
0.6-3.0 |
|
|
Low |
26 |
38 |
0.8 |
0.4-1.6 |
|
|
Very low |
42 |
52 |
|
|
|
|
Estimated field at longest residence: |
|
||||
|
>0.2 µT |
14 |
18 |
0.8 |
0.3-1.8 |
|
|
0.05-0.199 µT |
46 |
64 |
0.7 |
0.4-1.3 |
|
|
0.0-0.05 µT |
29 |
28 |
|
|
|
|
Estimated field at residence closest to reference date: |
|
||||
|
>0.2 µT |
23 |
25 |
1.0 |
0.5-2.0 |
|
|
0.05-0.1992 µT |
70 |
92 |
0.8 |
0.5-1.4 |
|
|
0.0-0.052 µT |
40 |
42 |
|
|
|
Study |
Exposure Description |
Number of Cases |
Number of Controls |
Crude ORa |
95% CIb |
Potential Confounders Addressedc |
|
Field measurement mean exposure for low power: |
|
||||
|
>0.2 µT |
|
|
1.5 |
0.5-4.7 |
|
|
0.05-0.1992 µT |
|
|
1.2 |
0.5-2.6 |
|
|
0.0-0.052 µT |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Field measurement mean exposure; for low power: |
|
||||
|
>0.2 µT |
|
|
1.6 |
0.5-5.0 |
|
|
0.05-0.1992 µT |
|
|
0.6 |
0.3-1.2 |
|
|
0.0-0.052 µT |
|
|
|
|
|
Coleman et al. 1989 |
Distance to substation, using population controls: |
|
||||
|
0-24 m |
4 |
4 |
1.3 |
(0.3-5.3) |
|
|
25-49 m |
11 |
13 |
1.1 |
(0.5-2.5) |
|
|
50-99 m |
63 |
69 |
1.2 |
(0.8-1.8) |
|
|
≥100 m |
112 |
145 |
— |
— |
|
Youngson et al. 1991 |
Distance from power line: |
|
||||
|
<25 m |
77 |
62 |
1.3 |
(0.9-1.8) |
|
|
≥25 m <50 m |
60 |
47 |
1.3 |
(0.9-1.9) |
|
|
≥50 m <75 m |
52 |
50 |
1.1 |
(0.7-1.6) |
|
|
≥75 m <100 m |
47 |
53 |
0.9 |
(0.6-1.3) |
|
|
<100 m |
236 |
212 |
1.1 |
(0.9-1.4) |
|
|
≥100 m |
2,908 |
2,932 |
— |
— |
|
TABLE A5-11 Residential Electric-and Magnetic-Field Exposure and Adult Cancer: Results
Study |
Exposure Description |
Number of Cases |
Number of Controls |
Crude ORa |
Adjusted 95% CIb |
Potential Confounders Addressedc |
Wertheimer and Leeper 1892 |
Wire codes: |
|
|
|
|
Sex, age, socioeconomic status, onset age, urban exposure |
|
VHCCd |
108 |
74 |
2.2 |
1.5-3.2 |
|
|
OHCCe |
330 |
298 |
1.7 |
1.2-2.2 |
|
|
OLCCf |
642 |
659 |
1.5 |
1.1-1.9 |
|
|
End poleg |
99 |
148 |
|
|
|
a Odds ratio calculated without consideration of possible confounders (ratio of exposed to unexposed cases divided by the ratio of exposed to unexposed controls). b 95% confidence intervals for the odds ratio calculated without consideration of possible confounders. c Includes all factors considered as potential confounders whether or not statistical adjustments were made for them. d VHCC, very high current configuration. e OHCC, ordinary high current configuration. f OLCC, ordinary low current configuration. g End pole, very low current configuration. |