Index
A
Abortion, spontaneous, 78, 168
ACE. See Alternating-conditional-expectations regression
Adipose tissue samples. See Sampling, personal Adverse outcomes. See Diseases
Aerometric Information Retrieval System. See Storage and Retrieval of Aerometric Data
Aged populations, susceptibility of, 84
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 4, 14-15, 28-29, 99, 102-103, 116-118, 121-122, 155-156, 174-175
Air pollution, 47-49
airborne particulate, 6, 45, 69-73
ambient, 47
factors affecting uptake of, 7
toxic, 4
Air-quality standards, 70-72
Alcohol use. See Lifestyle factors
Alpha probabilities, 21
Alternating-conditional-expectations regression, 142
Alzheimer's disease, 74
Ambulance calls, tracking, 111
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, 74
Analysis of variance (ANOVA), 132
Applied dose. See Dose
Applied Occupational and Environmental Hygiene,50
adult-onset, 2
ATSDR. See Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
ATSDR Guidance Manual,28
Attention-deficit disorders, in primates, 75
Attributable risk, 23
Autoregressive structures, 135-136
Aversive conditioning, 74
B
Background effects, 14
BDMP. See Birth Defects Monitoring Program
Behavioral changes, subtle, 73-74
Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 106
Benzene, 19
Beta probabilities, 21
Biologically effective dose. See Dose
Biologic markers, 17, 20, 33, 51, 56-58, 62, 81-84.
See also Sampling, personal cost of, 81
Biologic Markers in Immunotoxicology,81
Birth defects. See Congenital anomalies
Birth Defects Monitoring Program, 105, 108-109, 163-165
Blood samples. See Sampling, personal
Bootstrap procedure, 141-142
Breathing zone measurements, 38-39
Breath samples. See Sampling, personal
Bronchitis
acute, in children, 70
C
Cancer Incidence Reporting System (Canada), 123
Cancers, 15, 23, 46, 68-69, 80
endometrial carcinoma, 14
hepatic angiosarcoma, 23
laryngeal, 147
leukemia, 19
mesothelioma, 19
stomach, 14
Carbon monoxide, 39
Cardiac defects, 78
Cardiovascular disease, 6, 15, 18
Case-control studies, 17-19, 115, 148, 176
Case-crossover studies, 148
Case reports, 13
Causality, inferring. See Epidemiology studies
Census data, 15-16
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 126, 163-164, 168
Central nervous system (CNS) complications. See Neurologic symptomatology
CERCLA. See Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA)
Chemicals
agricultural (See Herbicides; Pesticides)
Children, susceptibility of, 85
Chromium, 46
Classification errors. See Misclassification
Cleaning products, 39
Clean Water Act, 102
Cleft lip and palate, 164-165
CNS. See Neurologic symptomatology
Coefficients of variation, 83
Cohort studies, 17-18, 114, 176.
See also Case-cohort studies
Complex mixtures. See Chemicals, mixed
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980, 116
Confidence bounds, 22
Confidentiality issues, 120-123
Confounding factors, 5-6, 15-16, 19, 22, 50, 83, 120, 134, 174
Congenital anomalies, 2, 78-79, 162-163, 167-168
Congenital Malformations Surveillance Report, 168
Consumer products, measuring concentrations of, 38-39
Cox proportional hazard model, 144
Cross-sectional surveys, 19-20, 114
Croup attacks, 71
D
Death-certificate diagnoses, 114
Dermal uptake, 30
''Design effect,"; 137
Design of studies, 13-22, 28, 44, 56-57, 147-148, 159-160.
See also Cross-sectional surveys;
Modeling;
Statistical techniques
Developing world, versus developed, 2, 9, 170-171
Developmental health effects, 3, 77-79
Disease-incidence data systems. See Surveillance systems
Diseases
acute, 70-72
multifactorial, 6, 18, 20, 114, 149
shifting patterns of, 86
of unknown etiology, 1-3, 10, 24, 68
Dose
applied, 29
biologically effective, 29, 56-59
cumulative, 61
internal, 29, 32-33, 40-41, 56, 59, 101-104, 106-107
tissue, 59
Dose-response relations, 2-3, 15, 19, 31, 34, 44, 49, 61.
See also Epidemiology studies, inferring causality in;
Statistical techniques
consistency of, 23
correlated data, 133-142
covariant correlations, 139-142
longitudinal correlations, 134-135
random-effect correlations, 136-139
serial correlations, 135-136
discrete data, 132-133
specificity of, 23
strength of, 22-23
unknown relations, 142-144
Dosimetric modeling. See Modeling
Drinking habits. See Lifestyle factors
Drinking water sampling, 36-37
Drugs. See Lifestyle factors
E
"Ecologic fallacy,";15
Ecologic studies, 14-16
Elderly, 84
Emergency room visits, tracking, 111, 115
Environmental epidemiology
(See also Health status data;
Monitoring)
analytic studies, 16-19, 35, 42
descriptive studies, 13-16, 34-35
origins of, 12
Environmental Epidemiology, Volume1, 3-4, 6, 22, 27, 31, 35, 48-49, 51, 54, 61, 78, 81, 131, 154
Environmental protection, 2, 94-97.
See also Developing world, versus developed
Environmental Protection Agency, 4, 27-30, 44, 98, 124
Environmental tobacco smoke. See Tobacco smoke
EPA. See Environmental Protection Agency
Epidemiologists, 7
Epidemiology,78
Epidemiology studies, 20, 50-51, 59
(See also Peer-review of studies)
inferring causality in, 15, 22-24, 26, 31
(See also Confounding factors)
Estrogen use, postmenopausal, 14
geographic location, 15-16, 125, 138, 178
size of (See Sample size)
Exposure analysts, 7, 51, 60, 62
Exposure-dose relations. See Dose-response relations
Exposure-response relations. See Dose-response relations
Exposures, 3.
See also Dose;
Pollutant discharges
(See also Monitoring;
Sampling, personal)
data needed, 31-42
measurements needed (See Measurements)
need for improvement in, 44-47, 56
possible approaches, 34, 96-97
analyzing, 130-150
linking, 113, 121-123, 177-178
defined, 29-30
developing relevant gradients, 7, 15, 24
indexes of, 51-54
F
Fecundity health effects, 76-77
Fish tissue contaminants, 38-39
Fixed-location monitoring. See Monitoring
FOIA. See Freedom of Information Act
Followup studies. See Trends
Food contaminants, 33, 36-37, 40-41, 102-103.
See also Fish tissue contaminants
Freedom of Information Act, 121
G
GAO. See U.S. General Accounting Office
Gene-environment interactions, 58, 85, 142
Geographic coding. See Exposed populations
need for databases of, 9
Groundwater contaminants. See Water contaminants
Group exposure, 15.
See also Sample size
Guidance Manual. See ATSDR Guidance Manual
H
Hair samples. See Sampling, personal
Hazardous-waste sites, 4, 7-8, 39, 49-50, 54-55, 61, 78-79, 107, 167-168.
See also Superfund sites
Health Care Financing Administration, 115-116, 177
Health Effects Institute Environmental Epidemiology Planning Project, 131
Health Interview Survey (HIS), 48
Health outcomes. See Diseases
Health status data, 104-112, 115
Hepatic health effects, 80, 114.
See also Cancers
Heteroscedastic distributions, 133
HIS. See Health Interview Survey
Hormone levels, 76
Hospital admissions, tracking, 111, 115
Human Exposure Assessment for Airborne Pollutants,28, 48
I
Immunologic health effects, 80-84
Immunotoxicology, future of, 82
Internal dose. See Dose
International Classification of Diseases,164
International Society of Exposure Analysis, 27
IQ, downward shifts in, 74-75
J
Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology,28
K
Kidney diseases, 80
Korn-Whittemore approach, 140
Kriging, 145-147
L
Lead poisoning, 2, 6-7, 18, 20, 23, 41, 69, 74-75, 79, 112, 124
Learning disorders, in primates, 75
Least-squares regression, 133
Lestimates, 145
Lifestyle factors
drugs, 3
See also Kriging
Linking data. See Exposures, databases of
Liver diseases. See Hepatic health effects
LOELs. See Lowest-observed-effects levels
Logistic regression, 133, 136, 140, 143, 179
Logs. See Diaries
Longitudinal correlations. See Dose-response relations, correlated data
Low birthweights, 77-78
Lowest-observed-effects levels, 142
M
Markers. See Biologic markers
Markov-type structures, 135
Mathematical modeling. See Modeling
Mathematical transformations, 143
Measurements
of human health effects, 8
types needed to characterize exposure, 36-41
Medline, 1
MEDPAR, 104
Mestimates, 145
Microenvironmental studies, 38-39, 47
Misclassification, 23, 42-44, 47, 50, 59, 61
See also Statistical techniques
covariance (See Dose-response relations, correlated data)
dosimetric, 58-60
multiple-regression, 141
random-effect (See Dose-response relations, correlated data)
validating, 7
Molecular-epidemiology studies, 20
Monitoring, 112-120
(See also Sampling, personal)
difficulties with, 112-113, 120
need to increase, 6
short-term, 36-37
sources (See Pollutant discharges, sources of)
Monotonicity, departures from, 31, 34.
See also Epidemiology studies,
inferring causality in
Monte Carlo pseudosamples, 141
Moving-average structures, 135
Multiple comparisons problem, 22
Myelin, damage to, 73
N
Nail samples. See Sampling, personal
National Air Monitoring Stations, 99
National Cancer Institute, 46, 105, 170
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 106
National Center for Environmental Health, 105, 126
National Center for Health Statistics, 14, 103-104
National Center for Injury Control and Prevention, 126
National Death Index, 124, 126, 179
National Exposure Registry, 104-105, 111, 116, 118, 121, 126
National Governors' Association, 155-157
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 103-110, 112, 126, 178
National Health Interview Survey, 104-105, 108-109, 111, 124, 126, 178
National Human Adipose Tissue Survey, 106
National Human Exposure Assessment Survey, 27-28, 44, 124
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 60, 99, 126
National Institutes of Health, 126
National Library of Medicine, 175
National Mortality Data Base (Canada), 123
National Occupational Exposure Survey, 104
National Occupational Hazards Survey, 111
National Priority List (of sites), 100, 102, 117-118
National Research Council, 1, 3-4, 28-29, 31, 68, 162
National Stream Quality Accounting Network, 99
National Toxicology Program, 76-77
National Vital Statistics Program, 108-109, 178
Negatives, false, 21, 140, 174
Nested case-control studies, 18-19, 148
Neurologic symptomatology, 2, 20, 23, 69, 73-76, 164-165, 168
NGA. See National Governors' Association
NHANES. See National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
NHEXAS. See National Human Exposure Assessment Survey
NHIS. See National Health Interview Survey
NIOSH. See National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
NOELs. See No-observed-effects levels
Nonlinearity. See Dose-response relations
Nonparametric regression, 143-144
No-observed-effects levels, 142
O
Occupational epidemiology, 50-51, 59
1-beta. See Beta probabilities
OR. See Odds ratio
Oral uptake, 30
Organic chemicals. See Chemicals
Outbreak investigations, 115
Outcomes, adverse. See Diseases
Ozone, 6, 48-49, 69-72, 96, 139-140
P
Pan American Health Organization, 4, 170
Parkinsonism, 74
Patterns of health, 12
PCBs. See Polychlorinated biphenyls
Peer-review of studies, 4, 157, 159, 174
Periodic regression, 142-143
Personal identifiers, 120-123
Personal monitoring. See Monitoring
Poison center data, 115
Poisson distributions, 132-133, 136, 138, 140, 143-144, 179
Political issues, 8, 155, 162, 169, 173
Pollutant discharges
concentrations of, 99, 102-103
sources of, 36-37, 98, 100-101
Polychlorinated biphenyls, 41, 79, 85
Populations, exposed. See Exposed populations
Potential dose. See Dose
Power considerations, 18, 20-22, 28, 42, 158, 160, 169
Pregnancy outcome effects, 76-77
Privacy Act of 1974, 121
Privacy issues, 120-123
Probit regression, 133
Prospective cohort studies, 17-18
Proxy variables, 59
"Publication bias," 155
Public health, 161.
See also Policy issues
developing programs to promote, 5, 86
impacts on, 6
Public-health departments, 7-9.
See also State health-department reports
P values, 22
R
Racial groups, varying susceptibilities of, 85
Radiation, 4
Random-effect correlations. See Dose-response relations, correlated data
Recommendations, 85-87, 123-126, 173-179
Reconstructed dose. See Dose, internal
Regression, 132-133
Regulatory considerations, 102, 155
Relative risk, 20, 22-23, 69, 176
Renal health effects, 80
Reproductive health effects, 2-3, 76-77, 86, 162-169
Resampling, 141
Reserve capacity, of immune system, 83
Respiratory ailments, 2, 9, 30, 43, 48, 69-73.
See also Pulmonary disease
Retrospective cohort studies, 17
Risk factors. See Attributable risk;
Dose-response relations;
Pollutant discharges;
Relative risk;
individual toxic substances
RR. See Relative risk
S
Salmonella, 120
Sample size, 6, 9, 18, 20-21, 42, 95, 160
Sampling, personal, 40-41, 107
Sampling instruments, new developments in, 45
Sanitation, basic, 9
SARA. See Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986
SAROAD. See Storage and Retrieval of Aerometric Data monitoring
Secondary data. See Exposures, databases of
Second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 7
See also Confidentiality issues
Sediment contaminants. See Soil and sediment contaminants
SEER. See Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results
Semen biochemistry, 76
Sentinel health events, 113, 124
Serial correlations. See Dose-response relations, correlated data
Serum-cholesterol measurement, 58
Sexual function effects, 76-77
Short-term monitoring. See Monitoring
Significance, statistical. See Statistical techniques
Silica, 54
Silicon carbide, 59
Six Cities Study of Air Pollution and Health, 48, 71
Skin patch samples. See Sampling, personal
Smoking. See Lifestyle factors, Tobacco smoke
Smoothing techniques, 143-144
SMR. See Standard mortality ratio
Software, mapping, 15
Soil and sediment contaminants, 33, 38-39
Source monitoring. See Monitoring
Spatial-covariance function, estimated. See Kriging
Sperm counts, 76
Standard mortality ratio, 22
State Environmental Health Information Clearinghouse, 156, 174
State health-department reports, 1, 4, 9, 155-169
Statistical power. See Power considerations
Statistical techniques, 50, 62, 130-150.
See also individual analytic methods
aggregate, 6
robust methods, 144-145
significance testing, 21
Storage and Retrieval of Aerometric Data monitoring, 48, 102, 110
Stress, 74
Study design. See Design of studies
Study size. See Sample size
Subjective symptoms. See Symptom incidence
Sulfate, 71
Sulfur dioxide, 71-72
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986, 103
Surface soil contaminants. See Soil and sediment contaminants
Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results program, 105, 107-109, 118
Surveillance systems, 14, 118-120
Susceptible populations, 84-86, 116-117
Symptom incidence, 52-56
Syndromes. See Diseases
T
Temporality. See Latency period
Thalidomide, 77
Time-activity diaries. See Diaries
Time factor. See Latency period
Tobacco smoke, 2, 13, 22, 24, 45-46
Total exposure, 29
Total suspended particle concentrations, 72, 138, 140
Toxicokinetic modeling. See Modeling
Toxicology,50
Toxic Release Inventory, 107
Toxic-waste sites. See Hazardous-waste sites
Training. See Exposure analysts
Transient populations, 116-117
TSP. See Total suspended particle concentrations
Type I errors. See False positives
Type II errors. See False negatives
U
Uncertainty, random. See P values
Urine samples. See Sampling, personal
U.S. General Accounting Office, 4
V
Variation in immunologic markers, coefficients of, 83
Variograms. See Kriging