A
Cooperative U.S.-European Space Projects
Tables A.1 through A.3, although fairly comprehensive, substantially understate the amount of cooperation in space projects that has taken place between Europe and the United States.1 This is because the tables do the following:
- Indicate none of the many principal investigator (PI)–coinvestigator collaborations that have been established in both directions across the Atlantic;
- Include no sounding rocket, balloon-borne, or aircraft-based experiments, which have been extensive with some countries;
- Present no data sharing arrangements, for example, between two principal investigators flying scientific instruments on the same or different spacecraft;
- Include no ground-based activity, such as the prearranged readout of scientific data by one country or institution of another's satellite data or the acceptance by one country of principal investigator/research investigations from another country to use data provided by the first Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS, now Landsat);
- Present no cooperation in technology or applications development, for example, on heat pipes (Shuttle Palette Satellite [SPAS]-01), spacecraft electrostatic charging and discharging (EOIM—Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials), Search and Rescue Satellites (COSPAS-SARSAT), or tether satellite experiments;
- Indicate none of the cooperative strategic-level planning and more detailed coordination that goes on between and among research organizations in all three discipline areas—for example, to indicate only one of many, through CEOS (Committee on Earth Observation Satellites); or
- Include no observing time on one another's astronomy satellites (U.S. responses to the European Space Agency [ESA] Announcements of Opportunity [AOs]; European responses to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration [NASA] Aos).
NOTE: The following abbreviations are used for European countries:
A |
Austria |
B |
Belgium |
CH |
Switzerland |
D |
Germany |
DK |
Denmark |
E |
Spain |
F |
France |
FI |
Finland |
GB |
United Kingdom |
GR |
Greece |
I |
Italy |
IRL |
Ireland |
L |
Luxembourg |
N |
Norway |
NL |
Netherlands |
P |
Portugal |
S |
Sweden |
TABLE A.1 U.S.-European International Cooperative Spacecraft Experiments in Earth Science from Space
Launch Year |
Mission Name |
Cooperating Countries |
Experiment or Space Science Objectives |
1964 |
Ariel-II |
GBa-US |
Measuring atmospheric ozone |
1965 |
OGO-2 |
Fb |
Photometer to measure airglow |
1966 |
OGO-3 (POGO) |
Fb |
See OGO-2 |
1967 |
Ariel-III |
GBa-US |
Measure vertical distribution of molecular oxygen in Earth atmosphere |
1967 |
OGO-4 |
Fb |
See OGO-2 |
1968 |
GEOS |
Db |
Determine size and shape of Earth and conduct gravitational field studies |
1969 |
OGO-6 |
Fb |
Measure altitude distribution and width of atomic oxygen line in airglow and aurora |
1970 |
Nimbus-4 |
GBb |
Selective chopper radiometric temperature probe |
1971 |
EOLE |
Fa-US |
French satellite to study meteorological data in the Southern Hemisphere |
1971 |
BIC |
Da-US |
Electric and magnetic cloud probe field studies |
1972 |
NIMBUS-5 |
GBb |
See NIMBUS-4 |
1975 |
NIMBUS-6 |
Upper atmospheric sounding; random-access measurement system |
|
1975 |
Atmospheric Explorer |
GBb |
Airglow photometer |
1978 |
TIROS-N |
Atmospheric sounding radiometer; Advanced Research and Global Observations Satellite flew on eight satellites in the TIROS-N series |
|
1978 |
NIMBUS-7 |
Radiometer for atmospheric and mesospheric sounding; ARGOSc |
|
1983 |
STS-9/Spacelab-1 |
Microwave remote sensing experiment and metric camera for Earth observations (2) |
|
1990 |
CRRES |
Db |
Study of Earth's magnetic fields |
1991 |
STS-40/UARS |
UKb-US |
Upper atmospheric observations |
1992 |
TOPEX-POSEIDON |
F-US |
Joint Centre National d'Études Spatiales-National Aeronautics and Space Administration mission to study relationship between Earth's oceans and climate |
1992 |
LAGEOS-2 |
I-US |
Improve geodetic reference datum (geoid) and Earth orientation, and measure crustal deformation, secular variation in Earth's gravity field, and wandering of Earth's polar axis and Earth rotation variations |
1992 |
Eureca-1 |
ESA-US |
Several Earth science experiments |
1992 |
STS-45/ATLAS-1 |
ATLAS 1-3: three missions to study the middle atmosphere and its variations |
|
1993 |
STS-55/Spacelab D2 |
ESA-Db-US |
Modular optoelectric multispectral scanner used to study atmospheric variations; also flown on two SPAS flights |
1993 |
STS-56/ATLAS-2 |
ATLAS 1-3: three missions to study the middle |
|
1994 |
STS-66/ATLAS-3 |
atmosphere and its variations |
|
1994 |
STS-66/CRISTA-SPAS |
D-US |
Combined experiment with ATLAS-3 to study atmospheric variability |
1994 |
STS-59/SRL-1 |
X-SAR as part of SIR-C |
|
1994 |
STS-68/SRL-2 |
X-SAR as part of SIR-C |
|
1997 |
STS-85/CRISTA-SPAS II |
D-US |
Experiments using CRISTA and MAHRSI instruments to study middle atmosphere and lower thermosphere |
ARGOS |
French satellite data collection system (Advanced Research and Global Observations Satellite) |
ATLAS |
Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science |
CRISTA |
Cryogenic Infrared Spectrometers and Telescopes for the Atmosphere |
CRRES |
Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite |
GEOS |
Geostationary satellite |
LAGEOS |
Laser Geodynamics Satellite |
MAHRSI |
Middle Atmosphere High-Resolution Spectrograph Investigation |
NIMBUS |
NASA environmental research satellite series |
OGO |
Orbiting Geophysical Observatory |
POGO |
Polar Orbiting Geophysical Observatory |
SIR |
Shuttle Imaging Radar |
SPAS |
Shuttle Pallet Satellite (Germany) |
SRL |
Space Radar Laboratory |
STS |
Space Transportation System (U.S.) |
TIROS |
Television Infrared Observing Satellite |
TOPEX |
(Ocean) Topography Experiment |
UARS |
Upper Atmospheric Research Satellite |
X-SAR |
X-band Synthetic Aperture Radar |
|
TABLE A.2 U.S.-European International Cooperative Space Flight Experiments in Microgravity Research and Life Sciences
Launch Year |
Mission Name |
Cooperating Countries |
Experiment or Space Science Objectives |
1972 |
Apollo 16 |
Effect of exposure to heavy nuclei cosmic radiation on biological specimens on Biostack facility |
|
1972 |
Apollo 17 |
Effect of exposure to heavy nuclei cosmic radiation on biological specimens on Biostack facility |
|
1973 |
Skylab |
Ba |
Space Manufacturing Experiment |
1975 |
ASP |
Fa |
Effect of exposure to heavy nuclei cosmic radiation on biological specimens on Biostack facility |
1983 |
STS-7/OSTA-2 |
Da |
Formation of metal alloys in space on SPAS-01; materials science experiments on MEA-MAUS; social behavior of an ant colony in microgravity on GAS |
1983 |
STS-9/Spacelab-1 |
ESA-Da-US |
Multiple microgravity research (39) and life sciences (16) experiments |
1984 |
STS 41-B |
Da |
SPAS-01A (Not deployed due to an RMS malfunction) |
1984 |
STS-41C/LDEF |
Multiple experiments to determine the effects of space environment on materials |
|
1985 |
STS-51B/Spacelab 3 |
Life science experiments in RAHF |
|
1985 |
STS-51-G |
Biomedical experiments plus two French life sciences experiments; three German GASs |
|
1985 |
STS-61A/Spacelab-D-1 |
D-USb-ESA |
76 microgravity research and life science experiments, including MEA and vestibular sled |
1991 |
STS-40/SLS-1 |
CHa |
Study of lymphocyte proliferation in weightlessness |
1992 |
STS-42/Spacelab IML-1 |
Numerous life and materials science experiments using Biorack, Biostack, Cryostat, GPPF, and CPF to study cellular behavior, plant and human physiology, crystal growth, radiation environment, and critical point physics (also 10 GASs) |
|
1992 |
STS-50/USML-1 |
ESAa |
Protein and combustion experiments |
1992 |
STS-46/Eureca-1 (launch) |
ESAc-US |
Mainly materials science, solar, and Earth science experiments |
1992 |
STS-52/USMP-1 |
Fa |
Study of role of gravity-driven convection during solidification of materials on MEPHISTO facility |
1993 |
STS-55/Spacelab D-2 |
D-USb-ESA |
Multiple microgravity and life science experiments, including MAUS |
1994 |
STS-62/USMP-2 |
Fa |
Study of the role of gravity-driven convection during the solidification of materials on the MEPHISTO facility |
1994 |
STS-65/IML-2 |
ESAa |
Numerous international life and materials science experiments using Biorack, Biostack, CPF, BDPU, TEMPUS, FFEU, APCF, and CPCG facilities (among others) to study cellular behavior, radiation environment, human physiology, surface forces materials processing, critical point physics, and crystal growth |
1995 |
STS-73/USML-2 |
ESA-Da |
Protein crystal growth experiments on APCF |
1996 |
STS-75/USMP-3 |
Fa |
Study of role of gravity-driven convection during solidification of materials on MEPHISTO facility |
1996 |
STS-76 (MIR 3) |
ESA-US |
Biology experiments on Biorack |
1996 |
STS-77 |
Da |
CFZF experiment |
1996 |
STS-78/LMS |
18 international microgravity experiments using AGHF, APCF, BDPU, and MMA facilities to study protein crystallization, materials processing, fluid dynamics, and microgravity environment; 16 life science experiments in musculoskeletal, cardiopulmonary, metabolic, behavior and performance, neuroscience, and space biology disciplines |
AGHF |
Advanced Gradient Heating Facility |
APCF |
Advanced Protein Crystallization Facility |
ASTP |
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project |
BDPU |
Bubble, Drop, and Particle Unit |
CFZF |
Commercial Float Zone Furnace |
CPCG |
Commercial Protein Crystal Growth facility |
CPF |
Critical Point Facility |
CSLM |
Coarsening in Solid-Liquid Mixtures Facility |
DCE |
Droplet Combustion Experiment |
EURECA |
European Retrievable Carrier |
FFEU |
Free Flow Electrophoresis Unit |
GAS |
Get Away Special |
GPPF |
Gravitational Plant Physiology Facility |
IML |
International Microgravity Laboratory |
LDEF |
Long Duration Exposure Facility |
LMS |
Life and Microgravity Spacelab |
MAUS |
Materialwissenschaftliche Autonome Experimente unter Schwerelosigkeit |
MEA |
Materials Experiment Assembly |
MEPHIS |
Material pour l'Étude des Phenomenes Interessant de la Solidification sur Terre et en Orbit |
MMA |
Microgravity Measurement Assembly |
MSL |
Microgravity Science Laboratory |
OSTA |
Office of Space Technology and Applications (NASA) |
RAHF |
Research Animal Holding Facility |
SLS |
Spacelab Life Sciences |
SPAS |
Shuttle Pallet Satellite (Germany) |
STS |
Space Transportation System (U.S.) |
TEMPUS |
Electromagnetic Containerless Processing Facility |
TVD |
Torque Velocity Dynamometer |
USML |
U.S. Microgravity Laboratory |
USMP |
U.S. Microgravity Payload |
|
TABLE A.3 U.S.-European International Cooperative Ventures in Space Sciences
Launch Year |
Mission Name |
Cooperating Countries |
Space Science Objectives or Remarks |
1962 |
Ariel-I |
GBa-US |
Measure energy spectrum of cosmic rays and solar x-rays |
1964 |
Ariel-II |
GBa-US |
Measure galactic radio noise and micrometeoroid flux |
1964 |
Explorer 20 |
GBb |
Measure ion mass composition and temperature |
1964 |
San Marco-I |
Ia-US |
Atmospheric physics; launched from Wallops by Italian launch crew |
1965 |
Explorer 31 DME-A |
GBb |
Measure ion mass composition and temperature, and electron temperature |
1965 |
FR-1 |
Fa-US |
Study very low frequency wavefields in magnetosphere and irregularities in ionosphere |
1965 |
OSO-2 |
Conduct multiple solar research experiments |
|
1967 |
San Marco-II |
Ia-US |
Ionospheric propagation studies; first launch from San Marco platform |
1967 |
Ariel-III |
GBa-US |
Multiple atmospheric physics measurements |
1967 |
OSO-4 |
GBb |
Measure distribution of total solar x-ray emissions |
1967 |
Pioneer-8 |
Ib |
Flux gate magnetometer |
1968 |
OGO-5 |
Determine direction of incidence of primary cosmic rays and density or temperature of hydrogen in geocorona; measure energy spectrum of cosmic ray electrons |
|
1968 |
ESRO-2 (IRIS) |
ESROa-US |
Study solar x-rays and cosmic radiation in Van Allen belt |
1968 |
ESRO-1A (Aurorae) |
ESROa-US |
Measure particles impinging on polar ionosphere |
1968 |
HEOS-1 |
ESROa |
Study interplanetary magnetic fields and cosmic ray particles |
1969 |
OSO-5 |
Measure solar x-ray flux and self-reversal of Lyman-Alpha line |
|
1969 |
Apollo 11 |
CHb |
Measure composition of solar wind |
1969 |
OSO-6 |
Study solar helium I and helium II resonance radiation |
|
1969 |
ESRO-1B (Boreas) |
ESROa |
Study ionospheric and auroral phenomena (polar orbiter) |
1969 |
GRS-A (Azur-1) |
Dc-US |
Study of inner Van Allen belt and auroral zones |
1969 |
Apollo 12 |
CHb |
Measure composition of solar wind |
1970 |
Explorer 42 |
I |
First x-ray satellite, Scout launched from San Marco platform |
1971 |
Apollo 14 |
Chb |
Measure composition of solar wind |
1971 |
San Marco-III |
Ic-US |
Study local density of equatorial upper atmosphere, San Marco launch |
1971 |
Apollo 15 |
CHb |
Measure composition of solar wind |
1971 |
Explorer 45 |
Ib |
Study of inner magnetosphere; San Marco launch |
1971 |
Ariel-IV |
GBa-US |
Measure VLF radiation and cosmic radio noise |
1972 |
HEOS-2 |
ESROa |
Investigate particles and micrometeorites in space |
1972 |
Pioneer 10 |
Db-US |
Investigation of Jupiter and interplanetary medium |
1972 |
TD-1 |
ESROa |
Study high-energy emissions from stellar and galactic sources |
1972 |
Apollo-16 |
CHb |
Measure composition of solar wind |
1972 |
Explorer 46 |
Db |
Cosmic dust detectors on Meteoroid Technology Satellite |
1972 |
OAO-3 |
GBb |
Study stellar ultraviolet (UV) and x-ray emissions |
1972 |
Explorer 48 |
I-US |
Small astronomy satellite to study gamma rays; San Marco Launch |
1972 |
ESRO-4 |
ESROa |
Investigate ionosphere, magnetosphere; auroral and solar particles |
1972 |
Aeros |
Da-US |
Measure solar extreme UV and correlate with upper atmosphere components |
1973 |
Skylab |
Sky survey, distribution of galaxies and ionized hydrogen; solar wind analysis |
1973 |
Pioneer 11 |
Da-US |
Investigation of Jupiter, Saturn, and interplanetary medium |
1974 |
San Marco-C-2 |
Ia-US |
Measure equatorial neutral atmospheric density, composition, and temperature |
1974 |
Aeros B-2 |
Da |
Study state and behavior of upper atmosphere and ionosphere |
1974 |
ANS |
UV photometry and measuring soft and intermediate-energy x-ray emissions |
|
1974 |
UK-5/Ariel-5 |
GBa-US-I |
Conduct x-ray sky survey; launched from San Marco |
1974 |
INTASAT |
Ea-US |
Conduct ionospheric total electron counts |
1974 |
Helios-A |
Da-US-I-A |
Study the Sun from heliocentric orbit |
1975 |
Explorer 53 (SAS-3) |
I |
Study x-ray sources within and beyond Milky Way galaxy, San Marco launch |
1975 |
OSO-8 |
Spectrographic study of solar chromosphere; x-ray heliometer |
|
1975 |
COS-B |
ESAa |
Cosmic ray satellite to study extraterrestrial gamma radiation |
1976 |
Helios-B |
Da-US-I-A |
Measure micrometeoroid flux; study solar x-rays and planetary orbits |
1977 |
Voyager 2 |
Investigation of Jupiter and Saturn planetary systems and interplanetary medium |
|
1977 |
SIRIO |
Ia |
Investigate trapped radiation flux, magnetic field intensity, and electron energy |
1977 |
Voyager 1 |
See Voyager 2 |
|
1977 |
ISEE-1/2 (Dual Payload) |
ESAa-US-F |
Coordinated spacecraft studies of magnetosphere, interplanetary space, and their interaction; three coordinated spacecraft missions (see ISEE-3) |
1978 |
IUE-A |
ESA-US-GB |
UV spectroscopy of stellar objects, gas clouds, planets, and comets |
1978 |
Pioneer-Venus 1 Orbiter |
Atmospheric, ionospheric, solar wind interaction; studies of Venus |
|
1978 |
GEOS-B |
ESAa |
Studies of magnetosphere |
1978 |
Pioneer-Venus-2 |
Fb-US |
Atmospheric and cloud studies at Venus |
1978 |
ISEE-3 |
Solar wind composition and mapping, comet flyby |
|
1979 |
UK-6 |
GBa |
Study of ultra heavy and low-energy cosmic rays |
1979 |
HEAO-3 |
Study isotopic composition and atomic number of cosmic nuclei |
|
1980 |
SMM |
Solar hard x-ray imaging spectrometry |
|
1983 |
IRAS |
Conduct infrared all-sky survey |
|
1983 |
EXOSAT |
ESAa |
Continuous observations of x-ray sources; U.S. experiment on board |
1983 |
Spacelab 1 |
ESA-US |
Astronomy and physics (6); space plasma physics (5) |
1984 |
LDEF |
Broad-scale investigations of space environment |
|
1984 |
AMPTE |
Identify particle entry windows and energizing or transport processes in magnetosphere (artificial comets) |
|
1985-1986 |
International Halley Watch (Giotto) |
ESA-USSR-Japan-US |
Spacecraft and mission design coordinated for ESA's Giotto, USSR's Venera-Halley (2), and Japan's Planet-A; U.S. coordinated ground-based and near-Earth observations and Deep Space Network |
1985 |
Spacelab 3 |
Fb |
Very Wide Field Camera (astrophysics) |
1985 |
Spacelab 2 |
Flew ESA-developed IPS; hard x-ray imaging (GB) and coronal helium abundance experiments (GB) |
|
1988 |
San Marco-IV |
Ia-US-D |
Effects of solar activity on meteorological processes |
1989 |
Magellan |
Fb |
Study of Venus's gravity and atmospheric tides |
1989 |
Hipparcos |
ESA-USb |
Strong international cooperation on spacecraft emergency operations post launch |
1989 |
Galileo |
D-US |
Multidisciplinary studies of Jupiter system, its moons, atmosphere, and magnetosphere |
1990 |
HST |
ESA-US |
High-resolution coverage of optical and UV wavelengths |
1990 |
ROSAT |
X-ray sky survey and sources study |
|
1990 |
Ulysses |
Observations of solar and interplanetary medium out of plane of ecliptic |
|
1991 |
GRO |
Wide-range gamma-ray detection; imaging Compton telescope |
|
1992 |
STS-45 |
Fb |
FAUST reflight |
1992 |
Eureca-1 |
ESA-USb |
X-ray science instrument |
Launch Year |
Mission Name |
Cooperating Countries |
Space Science Objectives or Remarks |
1992 |
Mars Observer |
Fb-US |
Mars geoscience and climatology |
1993 |
ORFEUS-SPAS-1 |
D-US |
Explore universe in far and extreme UV |
1994 |
Wind |
Measure three-dimensional plasma and energetic particle distributions |
|
1995 |
SOHO |
USb |
Investigate processes that lead to formation and heating of solar corona |
1996 |
FAST |
Db |
Study energy transfer processes in magnetosphere |
1996 |
ORFEUS-SPAS-2 |
D-US |
Second flight of this German-U.S. cooperative, Shuttle-launched subsatellite |
1996 |
TSS-IR (reflight) |
Experiments on electricity in space |
|
1997 |
Cassini-Huygens |
US-ESA-I |
Spacecraft orbiter and probe mission to Saturn and its moon, Titan |
1997 |
Equator-S |
Dc |
Measure magnetic and electrical fields and density, velocity, temperature, and composition of the charged particles surrounding the spacecraft |
NOTE: Where countries are listed without a superscript notation (e.g., D-US), the mission was fully cooperative with many joint experiments and mission elements. a Reimbursable launch on a U.S. vehicle; U.S.-cooperative mission launched on a U.S. vehicle. b European experiment on a U.S. mission. c U.S. experiment on a European mission; ESRO became ESA in 1975. |
AMPTE |
Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorer |
ANS |
Astronomical Netherlands Satellite |
COS |
Cosmic Ray Satellite (Germany) |
DME |
Direct Measurement Explorer |
ESRO |
European Space Research Organization |
FAST |
Fast Auroral Snapshot Explorer |
FAUST |
Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope |
GEOS |
Geostationary satellite |
GRO |
Gamma-Ray Observatory |
GRS |
German Research Satellite |
HEAO |
High-Energy Astronomical Observatory |
HEOS |
Highly Eccentric Orbit Satellite |
HST |
Hubble Space Telescope |
INTASAT |
Infrared Astronomical Satellite |
IRAS |
Infrared Astronomical Satellite |
ISEE |
International Sun-Earth Explorer |
|
IUE |
International Ultraviolet Explorer |
OAO |
Orbiting Astronomical Observatory |
OGO |
Orbiting Geophysical Observatory |
ORFEUS |
Orbiting and Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer |
OSO |
Orbiting Solar Observatory |
ROSAT |
Roentgen Satellite |
SIRIO |
Italian Satellite for Industrially Oriented Research |
SMM |
Solar Maximum Mission |
SOHO |
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory |
STS |
Space Transportation System (U.S.) |
TD |
Thor Delta |
TSS |
Tethered Satellite System |
VFL |
Very low frequency |
SOURCE: Update of Table 9-1, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, in International Cooperation and Competition in Civilian Space Activities, OTA-ISC-239, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., July 1985, p. 379. |