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Index
A
ADA, see Americans with Disabilities Act
Adams, Marilyn, 174-175
Adult education, 9
child-adult discourse, 148, 167, 19, 321, 323
listening/reading comprehension, 4-65
see also Parents; Teachers
African Americans, 27, 31, 155-156, 42, 243, 316
dialect speakers, 156, 239-242, 246, 41
first grade, 205
NAEP, 97
poverty, 155-156
Alphabetic principle, 3, 4, 15, 22, 23, 48, 315-316
bilingualism, 157
deaf children, 164
early childhood development, 42, 44, 47, 51, 56
first grade, 207
kindergarten, 80, 179, 183, 184-189
phonemic awareness and, 47, 153- 154, 248, 285, 314
preventive interventions, 278
second grade, 212
second-language speakers, 157, 324
teacher education, 285, 288, 294- 295, 296, 330
see also Letter identification and mapping; Print media; Word recognition
American Federation of Teachers, 317
America Reads/Reading Excellence Challenge, 305
Americans with Disabilities Act, 18
Assessment, see Evaluation
Attitude, see Motivation and attitude
Audiovisual presentations
school-based factors, 130
teacher-assistance vs, 214
Page 407
teacher education, 289-290
third grade, 83
see also Computer-assisted instruction; Pictures; Television
Auditory impairments, see Hearing impairments
Australia, 186
computer-assisted instruction, 252-253
early childhood development, 67, 75, 79
second-third grades, 210
teacher education, 285
tutoring, 259
word recognition, 75, 79, 90, 252-253;
see also Sight words
Awards and prizes
students, 130
teachers, 306
B
curricular design, 173, 189-194, 206-207
first grade, 198, 206-207, 208-210
kindergarten, 189-194
school restructuring, 231
third-fourth grades, 214
Basic skills, 175-176
Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning About Print, 174-175
Beliefs, see Motivation and attitude
Bermuda Day Care Study, 148
Big books
defined, 181
first grade, 196, 200, 203, 204
school restructuring, 231-232
Bilingual education, 28-29, 136, 157, 234, 236, 324-325, 340
federal funding, 18
teacher education on, 285, 288, 297-298, 330
Black persons, see African Americans
Book Buddies, 259
Book reading
early childhood development, 49, 58, 139, 148, 149, 170
family environment, 121, 139, 145, 263
language-impaired children, 165-166
poverty and, 148
predictable books, 182
second grade, 211
small-group instruction, 263
see also Big books; Rebus books; Storybooks; Textbooks
Blindness, see Visual impairments
Bridge, 240-241
C
California Achievement Test, 169
Capitalization, letters
kindergarten, 80
CARE, 155
Categorical models of risk, 88-91, 102
Certification, see Teacher certification
Chall, Jeanne, 173-174
Chapter I, see Elementary and Secondary Education Act
Chinese, 22
Choral reading, see Group reading
Classificatory analysis, 117
Class size, 11, 26, 130, 226, 229-230, 257, 327, 328
kindergarten, 178-179
poverty, 229
see also Student-teacher ratios
Page 408
Cognitive deficits, 24, 90, 103-104, 132, 137, 315, 317, 319
see also Special education
Cognitive skills, general, 43, 60, 106
minority cultures, 244
parental involvement, 142
third grade, 219
Community-based factors, see terms beginning ''Local . . ."
Comprehension, 4, 6-7, 62-65, 210-211
see also Reading comprehension
Comprehensive Child Development Program, 155
Computer-assisted instruction, 188, 248, 252-253, 264-266, 334, 342-343
automaticity, 252-253
cost factors, 266
minority/poor persons, 266
phonological awareness, 265
storybooks, 264
word recognition, 252-253
writing, 265
Concept Oriented Reading Instruction, 219-220
Conceptual knowledge, 3, 41-42, 217, 219-220, 317
early childhood development, 62, 280, 332
first grade, 195
third grade, 219-220
Concurrent instruction, 136
Consonants, 23
African American dialect, 239
invented spelling, 59
kindergarten, 188
silent, 23
syllable defined, 22
tutoring, 259
Contractions, 241
Conventional reading, see "Real reading"
Cooperative Research Program in First Grade Reading Instruction, 173
Correlational studies, general, 39, 101-103, 135, 178
computer-assisted instruction, 266
publishers, 308
risk factor assessment, 102, 132, 133
Counting, see Numeracy skills
Criterion-referenced testing, 95-96
see also National Assessment of Educational Progress
Cultural factors, 25, 33, 58, 147, 272
literacy as societal goal, 1, 17-20, 29-30, 33-34, 156, 170, 292, 324-325
preschool education, 148
preventive interventions, 136, 148
school-based factors, 68, 226, 227, 242-245
second-language speakers, 29, 123, 340
teacher education, 299
see also Dialects; English as a second language; Minority groups; Socioeconomic status
Curricular design, general, 100, 226, 323, 325, 336
basal reading, 173, 189-194, 206-207
curriculum casualties, 25-26
first grade, 195
Hawaiian natives, 244
ideological entrenchment, 225
local action, 304-305
parent education, 143-144
publishers and, 307-308
second-third grades, 210
small-group instruction, 263
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special education, 167-170, 269-270
specialists, 231
state-level action, 300-301, 302, 304
teacher education, 279-282, 294, 296, 330
see also Instructional materials; Teaching methods
D
Day care, see Group care
Deafness, see Hearing impairments
African American dialect speakers, 240
deaf children, 164
direct code instruction, 199, 202, 204, 205-206
early childhood development, 52, 57, 60, 65, 67, 70, 71, 76, 79, 81, 82
embedded phonics instruction, 199, 201-202, 204-206
first grade, 173-174, 199, 206, 208, 209
nonstandard dialects, 240
reading disabled children, 254
school restructuring, 232
second grade, 82
storybook reading, 143
Demographic factors, 23, 27-31, 176;
see also English as a second language; Families; Local factors; Minority groups; Rural areas; Socioeconomic status; Urban areas
Denmark, 186
Department of Education, 1, 32, 89, 305-306, 318
Department of Health and Human Services, 1, 306
Developmental factors, see Early childhood development
Dewey, John, 167
Diagnostics, see Screening and identification
Dialects, 27-28, 119, 124, 127, 132, 330, 341
African American, 156, 239-242, 246, 341
decoding, 240
discrimination against, 124
phonology, 24
letter-sound relations, 27-28, 124, 238-239
poor persons, 124
school-based factors, 227, 238-242
Dialogic reading, see Paired reading
Dimensional models of risk, 91-93, 102
Direct code instruction, 199, 202, 204, 205-206
Direct Instruction Model, 176
Disabilities, general, 4, 24-25, 106, 330
familial factors, 119-120
phonics, 173-174
screening and identification, 9, 132-133, 158, 159, 162-163, 318, 319
state policy, 282
see also Attention deficits; Cognitive deficits; Dyslexia; Early language impairments; Hearing impairments; Interventions; Learning disabilities; Speech impairments; Visual impairments
Discrimination
against dialects, 124
against minority groups, 123
DNA, 25
retention in grade and, 267
Dyadic reading, see Paired reading
Page 410
E
Early childhood development, 2, 41-84, 135-171
alphabetic principle, 42, 44, 47, 51, 56
book reading, 49, 58, 139, 148, 149, 170
conceptual knowledge, 62, 280, 332
decoding, 52, 57, 60, 65, 67, 70, 71, 76, 79, 81, 82
families, 57, 69, 139, 145-147, 171
fluency, 75-79
grammar, 48
letter identification and mapping, 57, 58, 59, 60, 65, 70, 71-72, 116, 319
deaf children, 164
longitudinal studies, 72
media influences, 57
television, 57, 59, 278, 311-312
memorization, 71
morphology, 73-74, 110, 111, 319
phonology, 46-47, 51-57, 59, 60, 332
phonemic awareness, 47, 51-57, 60, 71-73, 80, 81
phonological awareness, 51-57, 60
poverty, 58
awareness of, 59-60, 70-71, 80
reading comprehension, general, 60, 62-65, 75-78
spelling, 42, 43-44, 60, 66, 67, 70-71, 73
deaf children, 164
spoken words, 42, 46-47, 49, 50, 51, 320, 321, 324
syntax, 48, 53, 74, 75, 318, 332
vocabulary, 47, 57, 63, 67, 75, 79, 107, 109
word recognition, 50, 53, 62, 65-67, 70-75, 79, 80, 111
writing, 42, 57, 59-60, 69-70, 142, 149
deaf children, 164
see alsoPreschool education
Early childhood education, seeEmergent reading; First grade; Kindergarten; Preschool education; Primary grades; Second grade; Third grade;
Early Childhood Environment Rating, 148
Early Intervention in Reading, 262
Early language impairments, 5, 103, 104-108, 132, 163
preventive interventions, 137, 163, 165-166
Early Literacy Project, 269-270
Economic factors, 98
literacy as economic goal, 1, 17-19
see alsoCost factors; Employment and unemployment; Funding; Poverty
Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 227-229, 263-264, 305
Embedded phonics instruction, 199, 201-202, 204-206
teacher education, 288, 296, 297, 331, 332
see alsoPretend reading
Emergent writing, 42, 57, 59-60, 69-70, 81, 141, 149, 168, 171, 310
kindergarten, 183-184, 188, 189, 191
teacher education on, 288, 296, 297, 330, 331, 332
see alsoInvented spelling
Employment and unemployment, 20, 316
criterion-referenced testing, 96
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teachers, 331
England, 76
English as a second language
alphabetic principle, 157, 324
cultural factors, 29, 123, 340
first grade, 236
immersion programs, 235-236, 236
late-exit programs, 236
poor persons, 28, 123, 155-156
preventive interventions, 137
reading comprehension, general, 236-237
recommendations, 10-11, 324-325, 328, 339-340
retention in grade, 267
risk factors associated with, 5, 18, 19, 27-30, 123, 131, 156-158
school-based factors, 227, 233-238, 246, 333
second grade, 236
socioeconomic status, 235
teacher education, 296, 297-299, 330, 332
theoretical issues, 237-238
transfer of skills, 236-237
tutoring, 260
vocabulary development, 11, 325
word recognition, 236-237
see also Bilingual education; Spanish and Spanish speakers
Erikson Institute, 281
Error detection
by child, 51, 63, 81, 83, 169, 195, 213, 223, 237, 322, 323
nonstandard dialect students and, 124, 241-242
Ethnic groups, see Minority groups
Etymology, 23
Evaluation, 336-337
performance-based, 199
school-based factors, 27
textbooks, 304
see also Research methodology; Screening and identification; Standards; Tests and testing
Even Start Family Literacy Program, 146, 155
Explicit instruction, general, 11, 172-225 (passim), 322, 323
kindergarten, 177, 178-194, 250
teacher education on, 287
see also specific methods
F
age factors affecting learning, 122, 128
book reading, 121, 139, 145, 263
early childhood development, 57, 69, 139, 145-147, 171
educational level of, 119
literacy environment, general, 121-122, 123, 138, 139, 142, 143
narrative comprehension, 139, 143
preschool education, 119-128 (passim)
risk factors, 86, 100, 103, 119-128, 158, 159
siblings, 119
socioeconomic status, 31, 119, 121, 125-127
teacher education, 297
verbal interaction opportunities, 121, 122-123, 127, 139-141, 143, 171
see also Parents
Federal government, 2, 18, 275, 277, 305-306
bilingual education, 18
Office of Education, 173
poverty programs, 97-98, 228-230
Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 227-229, 263-264, 305
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Head Start, 145, 148, 150, 155, 156, 157, 175, 281, 305, 338
welfare reform, 320
teacher education, 284, 289, 294, 306
see also Legislation; terms beginning "Department . . ."
Fetal alcohol syndrome, 104
accomplishments of successful learner, 81, 194-195
African Americans, 205
alphabetic principle, 207
basal reading, 198, 206-207, 208-210
class size, 230
conceptual knowledge, 195
decoding, 173-174, 199, 206, 208, 209
embedded phonics instruction, 199, 201-202, 204-206
explicit instruction, general, 198, 208
frequency of reading, 195;
group reading, 196, 197, 200, 202
independent reading, 194, 196, 197, 198, 209, 322
instructional materials, 195-196
letter identification and mapping, 81, 198
letter-sound relations, 81, 199, 200-204, 208, 322
metalinguistic factors, 195, 204
minorities, 205
monitoring, reading comprehension, 81, 195
oral reading, 81, 194, 206, 209
phonology, 81, 195, 199, 200-204, 208, 262, 322
letter-sound relations, 81, 199, 200-204, 208, 322
phonemic awareness, 194, 195, 199, 206, 208
phonics, 174, 199, 201-204, 205, 209
poverty, 205
reading comprehension, general, 81, 195, 206, 209
reciprocal teaching, 222
retention in grade, 267
school restructuring, 232
second-grade transition, teacher assessment of, 211
second-language speakers, 236
small-group instruction, 262-264
sounds, 81, 195, 199, 200-204, 208, 262, 322;
letter-sound relations, 81, 199, 200-204, 208, 322
spelling, 81, 194, 195, 197, 198, 201-204, 206
teaching methods, 172, 173, 177-178, 194-210
whole language instruction, 199-201, 205-206
word recognition, 194, 198, 204, 205-206, 262
writing, 81, 196, 197, 198, 200, 204, 207, 209
see also Primary grades, general
early childhood development, 75-79
second grade, 82, 213, 214-216
special education, 270
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see also Frustration level; Reading comprehension; Word recognition
Follow Through, 175-177
Foreign countries, 234
see also specific countries
Foreign language speakers, see English as a second language; Japanese
Fourth grade
basal reading, 214
reading level requirements, 207, 210, 211
word recognition, 214
French immersion programs, 235
Frequency of reading, 3, 211, 314
first grade, 195
second grade, 211
third-fourth grades, 214
see also Practice; Rereading
Frustration level
second grade, 213
Funding, 18
parent-child reading programs, 144, 147
poor children, funding for, 227-230, 320;
see also Elementary and Secondary Education Act; Head Start programs
G
Games, see Play-based instruction
retention in grade, 267
Genetic factors, 24-25, 88, 91, 92, 119
Government role, see Federal government; Local government; State government
Grammar
early childhood development, 48
nonstandard dialects, 238, 241
teacher education, 298
see also Syntax
Group care, 8-9, 57, 148-149, 150, 161, 170, 277, 300
Group reading, 6
first grade, 196, 197, 200, 202
first-third grades, 6
kindergarten, 188-189
preschool, 148
reciprocal teaching, 221
special education, 270
see also Small-group instruction
H
Hawaiian children, 243-245
Head Start programs, 145, 148, 150, 155, 156, 157, 175, 281, 305, 338
Health care professionals, 101, 158, 159
see also Pediatricians
Health care services, 158-163
Hearing impairments, 5, 16, 55, 89, 103, 104, 132, 133, 315, 319
chronic otitis media, 103, 104, 161
developmental factors, 164
preventive interventions, 137, 159, 161, 163-165
High-risk children, see Risk factors
preschool intervention and success in, 150, 343
socioeconomic status, 125
vocabulary size, 48
High School and Beyond, 20
High/Scope program, 167, 168-170
Hispanic persons, see Spanish and Spanish speakers
Home environment, see Families; Parents
Home Instruction Program for Preschool Youngsters, 144
Homework
parental assistance, 128
Page 414
Hyperactivity disorder, see Attention deficits
Hypertension as analogy for reading difficulty, 92-93
I
Identification of problems, see Screening and identification
IEP (Individualized educational program), see Tutors and tutoring
Immersion programs, 235-236
Improving America's School Act, 228-229
Income, see Poverty; Socioeconomic status
Independent reading, 218
first grade, 194, 196, 197, 198, 209, 322
first-third grades, 6, 8, 322, 323, 324
oral reading, impact on, 219
reciprocal teaching, 221
second grade, 82, 211, 213, 214, 322-323
teacher education, 296
third grade, 213
tutoring, Reading Recovery, 255
see also Homework; Oral reading
Individual instruction, see Tutors and tutoring
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 89, 269-269, 305
Infant Health Development Program, 155
Inference, 7
first grade, 195
second-third grade, 222
Instructional materials, 2-3, 6, 11, 175, 272, 300, 307, 333-334, 344
basal reading, 189
case-based teacher education, 289-290
first grade, 195-196
lack of, 26
nonstandard dialects, 239-241
school-based risk factors, 129
see also Audiovisual presentations; Book reading; Curricular design; Pictures; Publishers; Textbooks
Instructional methods, see Teaching methods
Intelligence quotient, 24, 88, 94-95, 106-107, 109, 116, 118, 150, 318
reading disabilities, defined, 268-269
International dimension, see Foreign countries; specific countries
International Reading Association, 317
Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium, 295
Interventions, 101, 247-274, 343-344
controversial, 271
defined, 247
older children, 247-248
teacher education on, 287
see also Preventive interventions; Remedial interventions; Special education
Invented spelling, 7-8, 59, 70, 80, 168, 272, 323
tutoring, 259-260
Iowa, 88
IQ, see Intelligence quotient
J
Japanese, 21
K
Kamehameha Early Education Project, 244-245
Kentucky, 301
Page 415
Kindergarten, 111, 116-118, 136, 277
accomplishments of successful learner, 80, 179
alphabetic principle, 80, 179, 183, 184-189
basal reading, 189-194
capitalization, 80
class size, 178-179;
student-teacher ratios, 9, 133, 318-319
consonants, 188
emergent writing, 183-184, 188, 189, 191
explicit instruction, general, 177, 178-194, 250
group reading, 188-189
instructional strategies, 177, 178-194, 250
lack of, 79
letter identification, 9, 80, 113-115, 180, 183, 185, 187, 188, 191, 249-250, 322
motivation, 179
multiple risk factors, 116-117
oral reading, 80, 179-181, 188-189, 191
phonology,
letter-sound relations, 80, 183, 185, 187, 188, 191, 249, 250, 251
phonemic awareness, 80, 179, 187, 189, 191, 193
phonological awareness, 54, 112, 151, 185-189, 192-193, 248-252
predicting, reading comprehension, 80, 180-181
print media, 179, 180, 181, 188, 189, 191, 322
real reading, 68
recommendations, 6, 9, 321-324
retention/prekindergarten, 149, 266, 341-342
rhymes and rhyming, 80, 182, 187, 191
risk factor analysis, 102, 113-118, 151
school-based factors, 130
second-language speakers, 28, 181, 236
semantics, 111
sounds, 9;
letter-sound relations, 80, 183, 185, 187, 188, 191, 249, 250, 251
spoken words, 80, 179, 186-187, 188
student-teacher ratios, 9, 133, 318-319
syntax, 111
word recognition, 180, 181-182, 188, 189, 249, 251, 322
writing, 183-184, 188, 189, 191
Kinesiology, 271
L
Language development, general, 45, 46-50, 73, 75-76, 82, 106-108, 319
impairments, 5, 103, 104-108, 163, 165-166
preventive interventions, 137, 163, 165-166
parental involvement, 142, 145
speech impairments, 105, 165, 315
teacher qualifications involving, 282
see also Early childhood development; Early language
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impairments; Metalinguistic factors
Language-minority children, see English as a second language
Language-rich environments, 69, 100, 142, 199
Language skills, general, 108-110, 132, 315, 317, 319, 323
first grade, 195
preschool, 9, 108-109, 111, 116, 137, 147-148, 282
teacher education, 282, 284, 285, 330
see also specific skills
Lead poisoning, 104
Learning disabilities, 3, 18, 88-91
decoding, 254
reading disabilities defined, 268
statistics on, 89
see also Cognitive deficits; Dyslexia; Special education
Learning to Read/Reading to Learn, 306
Learning to Read: The Great Debate, 173-174
LEAs, see Local government
Legislation
Americans with Disabilities Act, 18
Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 227-229, 263-264, 305
Improving America's School Act, 228-229
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 89, 268-269, 305
state action, 302
Letter identification and mapping, 44, 101, 110, 113, 137, 215
age factors, general, 71
capitalization, letters, 80, 81, 198
early childhood development, 57, 58, 59, 60, 65, 70, 71-72, 116, 319
deaf children, 164
sound-letter relations, 81, 199, 200-204, 208, 322
kindergarten, 9, 113-115, 180, 249-250, 322
sound-letter relations, 80, 183, 185, 187, 188, 191, 249, 250, 251
parental behavior, 142
second grade, 82
sound-letter relations, 7, 22-23, 44, 71-72, 80, 81, 82, 112, 115, 152-153, 154, 223, 316
first grade, 81, 199, 200-204, 208, 322
kindergarten, 80, 183, 185, 187, 188, 191, 249, 250, 251
nonstandard dialects, 27-28, 124, 238-239
school restructuring, 232
second grade, 82, 212, 322-323
teacher education, 285, 294-295
third grade, 83
testing for, 115
see also Alphabetic principle; Capitalization, letters
Libraries and librarians, 8, 324, 327
state-level action, 300
Limited-proficiency English, see English as a second language
Listening comprehension, 64-65, 280, 332
see also Oral reading
Literacy, general
ability range, 41-42
deaf children, 164
defined, 42
enjoyment, source of, 33, 138, 139, 142, 143, 171
family environment, 121-122, 123, 138, 139, 142, 143
minority groups' views on, 29-30
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preschool, 282
societal goals, 1, 17-20, 29-30, 33-34, 156, 170, 292, 324-325
teacher education on, 282, 284
Local factors, general, 2, 8, 86, 128-130, 277, 324, 331
curricular design, 304-305
socioeconomic status, 126
see also Rural areas; School-based factors; Urban areas
Local government, 2, 18, 275, 277
teachers, 305
textbooks, 304
Local risk factors, 1-3, 100, 128-130, 304-305
see also School-based factors
Longitudinal studies, 20
early childhood development, 72
risk factors, 87-88, 90, 97-98, 103, 105, 113, 118, 121-122
school-based factors, 228
see also High School and Beyond; National Assessment of Educational Progress
Louisiana, 129
M
Mapping letters, see Letter identification and mapping
Maryland School Performance Assessment Program, 220
Massachusetts, 160
Media influences, 2, 275, 310-312, 318, 319, 327
controversial interventions, 271
early childhood development, 57
see also Television
Medical professionals, see Health care professionals
phonological awareness and, 112
preschool children, 108-109
see also Automaticity; Recall; Sight words
Mental retardation, see Cognitive deficits; Special education
Metacognition
defined, 45
preventive interventions, 278
reading comprehension and, 64, 76, 220-223
teacher education, 286
teaching methods, 220-223
Metalinguistic factors, 45, 46, 49-50, 53, 106-108, 111-112, 217, 319, 323
age factors, general, 50
defined, 45
tutoring, Reading Recovery, 258
see also Phonology
Methodology, see Research methodology
Middle school, 343
socioeconomic status, 125
Success For All, 232
Minority groups, 4, 17-18, 19, 27-30, 97-98, 242-245, 315, 316
computer-assisted instruction, 266
discrimination against, 123
English as a second language, general, 123
first grade, 205
Hawaiian children, 243-245
literacy, views on, 29-30
poverty affecting, 29-30
preventive interventions, 30, 136
remedial interventions, 30
retention in grade, 267
see also African Americans; Cultural factors; English as a second language; Spanish and Spanish speakers
Miscue analysis, 73
Mississippi, 302
Models and modeling
basic skills, 175-176
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categorical models of risk, 88-91, 102
dimensional models of risk, 91-93, 102
hypertension as analogy for reading difficulty, 92-93
parental, 142
reading comprehension, 62-63, 71
reading difficulties/risk factors, 87-96, 98-99, 102, 310
school-wide restructuring, 326
screening and identification, 87-96, 98-99
spelling development, 44-45, 72
teacher in-service education, 291-292
word recognition, 66
Monitoring, 4, 6, 7, 223, 314, 344
early childhood development, 63-64, 76, 77
error detection, 51, 63, 81, 83, 169, 195, 213, 223, 237, 322, 323
reciprocal teaching, 221
second-third grades, 222
early childhood development, 73-74, 110, 111, 319
teacher education, 330
Motivation and attitude, 4, 5, 100, 147, 278, 315, 316
administrative personnel, 26
basic skills models, 175
dyslexia and, 89
family environment, 121
parental attitudes, 138, 139, 142, 146, 162, 219
fear of school, 147
kindergarten, 179
limited-proficiency English speakers, 29
literacy as societal goal, 1, 17-20, 29-30, 33, 142, 170
literacy as source of enjoyment, 33, 138, 139, 142, 143, 171
preschool children, 8, 138, 139, 142, 143, 146, 147
special education, 167-170
teachers, toward students, 26, 124, 229, 288, 331, 332
see also Frustration level
kinesiology, 271
N
NAEP, see National Assessment of Educational Progress
Naming, 113, 115, 116, 132, 280, 332
see also Letter identification and mapping
Narrative comprehension, 116, 143
language-impaired children, 165
phonological awareness and, 112
preschool education, 149
National Assessment of Educational Progress, 88, 96-97, 302
socioeconomic status, 126-127
National Association for the Education of Young Children, 282, 317
National Association of Family Day Care, 282
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 296, 301-302
National Commission on Teaching and America's Future, 284, 289
National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education, 294-295
National Education Association, 317
National Education Longitudinal Study, 20
National Evaluation Information System, 146
National Governors Association, 282, 299
National Institutes of Health, 306
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National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 156
National Reading Research Center, 196
National Science Foundation, 299, 306
Native Americans, 243-245, 316
Netherlands, 236-237
Neurology and neuroscience, 24-25, 271
Nevada, 304
New Jersey, 304
Non-English speakers, see English as a second language
Nonstandard dialects, see Dialects Norm-referenced testing, 95-96, 330
Norway, 186
Nutrition, 103-104, 158, 160, 271
O
Office of Education, 173
Oral reading
first grade, 81, 194, 206, 209
independent reading, impact on, 219
kindergarten, 80, 179-181, 188-189, 191
miscue analysis, 73
parent-child, 121, 128, 142-143, 144-145, 147, 148, 166, 171, 180, 218-219, 310, 317, 319, 324
reciprocal teaching, 221
second grade, 215-216
small-group instruction, 263
speech impairments, 105, 165, 315
third grade, 83
waiting room volunteers, 162
see also Group reading; Paired reading
Oregon, 301
Orthography, see Spelling
see also Conferences
P
Paired reading
parent-child, 121, 128, 142-143, 144-145, 147, 148, 166, 171, 180, 218-219, 310, 317, 319, 324
preschool education, 142-143, 144-145, 148, 171
school restructuring, 232
second grade, 215
special education, 270
Parents, 1, 2, 8, 9, 57, 58, 31, 32, 101, 128, 132, 136, 138-147, 171
age of child as factor, 128
attitudes of, 138, 139, 142, 146, 162, 219
audiovisual presentations for, 9, 319
cognitive skills, parental involvement, 142
curricular design, 143-144
education to teach children, 143-147, 319
federal action, 306
health care providers and, 158
language development, general, 142, 145
language-impaired children, 166
letter identification and mapping, 142
models of, 142
monitoring of child's reading, 128, 263, 324
pre/perinatal programs, 160
preventive interventions, 138-147
questioning of children by, 139, 140-141, 143, 144-145
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reading difficulties, parents with, 5, 119-121, 127, 132, 137, 315, 318
reading to children by, 121, 128, 142-143, 144-145, 147, 148, 166, 171, 180, 218-219, 310, 317, 319, 324
teacher collaboration, 297, 344
vocabulary development, 139, 319
see also Families
Parents as Teachers program, 144
Partner reading, see Paired reading
Patterned books, see Predictable books
Pediatricians, 9, 133, 158, 159, 162-163, 318, 319
Phonemic awareness, 15, 112, 149, 176, 223, 315, 321, 323
age factors, general, 53, 151-154
alphabetic principle, 47, 153-154, 248, 285, 314
defined, 52
early childhood development, 47, 51-57, 60, 71-73, 80, 81
first grade, 194, 195, 199, 206, 208
invented spelling and, 195
kindergarten, 80, 179, 187, 189, 191, 193
nonstandard dialects, 240
preschool education, 152-154
reading disabled children, 252-254
second grade, 212
small-group instruction, 263
state action, 302
Phonetic cue reading, 71
Phonics, 52, 55, 56, 81, 173-174
first grade, 174, 199, 201-204, 205, 209
second grade, 205-206
state action, 302
teacher education, 296
vocabulary and, 173
word recognition and, 173, 259
Phonological awareness, 23, 107, 110, 111-112, 116, 118, 132, 319, 320, 321
age factors, general, 53, 151-154
computer-assisted instruction, 265
deaf children, 164
early childhood development, 51-57, 60, 151-154
experimental studies, 152-153, 249-250, 252-253
language-impaired children, 166
kindergarten, 54, 112, 151, 185-189, 192-193, 248-252
interventions, 248-251
memory and, 112
narrative comprehension and, 112
preschool education, 151-155
preventive interventions, 151, 249-251
reading disabled children, 252-254
recall and, 112
small-group instruction, 250, 252
storybooks, 112
teacher education, 284, 288, 298, 330
see also Rhymes and rhyming
Phonological decoding, see Decoding
Phonological sensitivity, 71-73, 111-112, 137, 186, 188, 317
Phonology, 5, 6, 7, 9, 15, 54-55, 66
early language development, 46-47, 51-57, 59, 60, 332
first grade, 81, 195, 199, 200-204, 208, 262, 322
letter-sound relations, 7, 22-23, 44, 71-72, 80, 81, 82, 112, 115, 152-153, 154, 223, 316
first grade, 81, 199, 200-204, 208, 322
kindergarten, 80, 183, 185, 187, 188, 191, 249, 250, 251
nonstandard dialects, 27-28, 124, 238-239
school restructuring, 232
second grade, 82, 212, 322-323
teacher education, 285, 294-295
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third grade, 83
see also Decoding
neurological research, 24
nonstandard dialects, 24, 27-28, 124, 238-239
second-language speakers, 11, 27-28, 324-325
speech discrimination, general, 52, 54-55, 56
spelling relations, general, 3, 22-23, 80-83, 194, 195, 198, 298, 322, 330, 343
teacher education, 280, 298, 330, 332
letter-sound relations, 259, 261
see also Dialects; Hearing impairments; Phonemic awareness; Phonological awareness; Phonological sensitivity; Rhymes and Rhyming; Spoken words
Piaget, Jean, 167
Pictures, 59, 69, 109, 142, 152, 162, 180, 200, 262, 323
see also Rebus books
Play-based instruction, 59, 183-184, 188, 189-190, 191, 223, 306, 320, 321
see also Dramatic play; Rhymes and rhyming; Word games
Poems, see Rhymes and rhyming
Political factors
curricular ideologies, 225
limited-proficiency English speakers, 29, 123
textbooks, 304
Poverty, 4, 5, 16, 17, 18-19, 30-31, 97-98, 119, 125-127, 131, 315, 327-328
African Americans, 155-156
book reading, 148
class size, 229
computer-assisted instruction, 266
early childhood development, 58;
see also ''preschool" infra
Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 227-229, 263-264, 305
Head Start, 145, 148, 150, 155, 156, 157, 175, 281, 305, 338
welfare reform, 320
first grade, 205
infant nutrition, 160
limited-proficiency English speakers, 28, 123, 155-156
minority status and, 29-30
narrative comprehension, 143
nonstandard dialect speakers and, 124
preschool education, 8-9, 147, 150, 154, 155, 282, 320
Head Start programs, 145, 148, 150, 155, 156, 157, 175, 281, 305, 338
reciprocal teaching, 222
retention in grade, 267
school-based factors, 26, 227-230
second grade, 205-206, 214-216
teacher education, 296
tutoring, 260
welfare reform, 320
Practice, 75, 196, 217, 223, 314
see Frequency of reading; Homework; Rereading
Practicum techniques, teacher education, 290
Pragmatics, 49
teacher education on, 288
Predictable books, 182
Predicting, reading comprehension
first grade, 195
first-third grades, 6, 7, 322, 323
school restructuring, 232
second-third grades, 222
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Predictors of reading difficulties, see also Risk factors
Predictors of successful reading achievement, 100
Preschool education, 19, 33, 42-84, 108-119, 137-171, 277, 317-321, 338
cognitive skills, general, 9, 148, 280
cultural factors, 148
deaf children, 164
family environment, 119-128 (passim)
group reading, 148
Head Start, 145, 148, 150, 155, 156, 157, 175, 281, 305, 338
high school, preschool interventions and success in, 150, 343
language skills, general, 9, 108-109, 111, 116, 137, 147-148, 282
literacy, general, 282
longitudinal studies, 146, 156
motivation, 8, 138, 139, 142, 143, 146, 147
narrative comprehension, 149
paired reading, 142-143, 144-145, 148, 171
phonemic awareness, 152-154
phonological awareness, 151-155
poverty, 8-9, 147, 150, 154, 155, 282, 320
Head Start programs, 145, 148, 150, 155, 156, 157, 175, 281, 305, 338
awareness of, 139, 164, 165, 170
concepts of, 139, 145, 149, 164, 165
recommendations, 5-6, 8-9, 317-321, 338
retention in grade, prevention, 149, 150
risk factors, 8, 108-119, 317-320
special education, 150, 166-170
spoken language, 108
state-level action, 277, 282, 300
teacher education, 10, 279-283, 331-332
verbal memory, 108-109
vocabulary, 107, 109-111, 148, 170, 280, 318, 319, 320, 321
see also Early childhood development; Families; Head Start programs; Parents; Preventive interventions
Pretend reading, 33, 58, 59, 69, 81
Preventive interventions, 2, 6, 16, 85, 135-171, 277-278, 316, 317-321, 338
alphabetic principle, 278
early language impairments, 137, 163, 165-166
hearing impaired children, 137, 159, 161, 163-165
metacognition, 278
multicomponent, 135
parental, 138-147
phonological awareness, 151, 249-251
research methodology, 135-136
retention in grade, prevention, 149, 150
school-based factors, 136, 137
second-language speakers, 137
socioeconomic status and, 136, 137
special education, 150, 166-170
state action, 302
teacher education, 10, 287, 332
writing, 278
Primary grades, general, 6-7, 19, 32
alphabetic principle, 6, 7, 321
comprehension skills, 6-7, 210-211
group reading, 6
independent reading, 6, 8, 322, 323, 324
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language skills, 176, 191, 284, 285
letter identification and mapping, 6, 7, 321
sound-letter relations, 81, 199, 200-204, 208, 322
listening/reading skills, 64-65
predicting, reading comprehension, 6, 7, 322, 333
preschool and outcomes in, 149
reading comprehension, 6-7, 81, 82, 83, 322, 323
recommendations for, 6-8, 10-11, 321-324
rhetorical structures, 6, 322, 324
second-language speakers, 28
spelling, 6, 7-8, 321, 323-324, 343
state-level action, 300
summarizing, reading comprehension, 6, 7, 322, 323
teacher education, 10, 283-299, 329-331
vocabulary size, 6, 48, 321, 322, 344
see also First grade; Kindergarten; Second grade; Third grade
Primary prevention, see Preventive interventions
Principals, 130
early childhood development, 59-60, 70-71, 80
kindergarten, 179, 180, 181, 188, 191, 322
preschool education, 139, 164, 165, 170
concepts of, 259, 315, 318, 319-321, 322, 323, 332
deaf children, 164
early childhood development, 45, 69
preschool education, 139, 145, 149, 164, 165
risk factors regarding, 110, 115, 116
language-impaired children, 165-166
parental behavior, 139, 142, 145
small-group instruction, 263
teacher education on, 288, 332
see also Letter identification and mapping
Prizes, see Awards and prizes
Problem identification, see Screening and identification
Problem-solving activities
for teachers, 290
Professional education and development, 9-10
day care providers, 149
principals' involvement, 130
see also Teacher education
day care providers, 149
see also Health care professionals; Libraries and librarians; Principals; Publishers; Specialists; Teachers
Project Read, 270
Psychological factors, 174
controversial interventions, 271
deaf children, 165
severe pathologies, 104
teacher education, 285, 286, 287, 288, 292
see also Motivation and attitude
Public education, 310-312, 318, 319
see also Pediatricians; Social workers; Speech-language therapists
Publishers, 1, 2, 32, 275, 306-310, 333-334
standards, 300
see also Instructional materials; Textbooks
Punctuation, 81
Page 424
R
Race-ethnicity, see Minority groups
Readiness, see Reading readiness
Reading aloud, see Oral reading
Reading comprehension, general, 3, 4, 173, 315
adults, 64-65
conceptual knowledge and, 219-220
early childhood development, 60, 62-65, 75-78
first grade, 81, 195, 206, 209
first-third grades, 6-7, 81, 82, 83, 322, 323
listening comprehension and, 64-65
metacognition and, 64, 76, 220-223
neuroscience on, 24
print exposure and, 218-219
reciprocal teaching, 221-222
school restructuring, 232
second grade, 82, 213, 214-215, 222
second-language speakers, 236-237
state action, 302
teacher education, general, 296, 330
third grade, 83, 213, 219-220, 222
tutoring, Reading Recovery, 258
vocabulary and, 63, 67, 216-219, 220
see also Fluency; Monitoring; Narrative comprehension; Predicting, reading comprehension; Recall; Summarizing
Reading for meaning, 81, 314, 320, 324
Reading level
high school graduation and, 21
reading disabilities, defined, 268-269
second grade, 211-212
special education, results, 270
Reading lists, see Summer reading lists
Reading One-One, 260-262
Reading readiness, 113, 116, 261
Reading Recovery program, 250, 253, 255-258
Reading specialists, 12, 248, 296, 298, 327, 333
"Real reading," 15-16, 42, 68, 81, 181, 232
kindergarten, 80, 108-109, 118
phonological awareness, 112
third grade, 213
see also Frustration level
Reciprocal teaching, 139, 221-222
Remedial interventions, 2, 3, 12, 24, 278
defined, 16
minority groups, 30
nonstandard dialects, 240
teacher education on, 287, 298
Title I, 228
see also Special education; Tutors and tutoring
Repeating (grade level), see Retention in grade
Rereading, 214
first-third grades, 7, 8, 81, 324
second grade, 82
third-fourth grades, 214
tutoring, Reading Recovery, 255
Research methodology, 33, 34-39, 176, 256-257
classificatory analysis, 117
correlational studies, general, 39, 101-103, 135, 178
error of measurement, 115
prevention efforts, 135-136
prospective analyses, 37-38, 90
systematic replication, 34-35
see also Models and modeling
Retardation, see Cognitive deficits; Special education
Retention in grade, 248, 266-267, 341-342
first grade, 267
kindergarten, 149, 266, 341-342
minority groups/poor persons, 267
preschool prevention, 149, 150
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Retrospective studies, general, 37
Rhetorical structures
first grade, 195
first-third grades, 6, 322, 324
teacher education, 280, 285, 288
Rhymes and rhyming, 51, 53, 143, 149, 151, 278, 320, 321
first grade, 203
kindergarten, 80, 182, 187, 191
Riddles, 223
Rime, see Onset-rime
Risk factors, 1, 2, 4-5, 11, 16, 85-86, 100-133, 317-319
categorical models of, 88-91, 102
cost of assessment, 102, 132, 133
dimensional models, 91-93, 102
familial, 86, 100, 103, 119-128, 158, 159
parents with reading difficulties, 5, 119-121, 127, 132, 137, 315, 318
kindergarten, 102, 113-118, 151
local factors, 1-3, 100, 128-130, 304-305
longitudinal studies, 87-88, 90, 97-98, 103, 105, 113, 118, 121-122
media information about, 310
models of, 87-96, 98-99, 102, 310
multiple, 116-119, 123, 125, 127, 131, 230, 313-314
nature of, general, 85-86
parents with reading difficulties, 5, 119-121, 127, 132, 137, 315, 318
preschool, 8, 9, 108-119, 317-320
print, concepts of, 110, 115, 116
second-language speakers, 5, 18, 19, 27-30, 123, 131, 156-158
teacher education, poor training, 26, 289, 291
see also Interventions; School-based factors; Screening and identification; specific risk factors
S
School-based factors, 11, 25-27, 86, 100, 103, 128-130, 131, 226-246, 304-305, 315, 337-338
African Americans, 227, 238-242
audiovisual presentations, 130
basal reading, 231
big books, 231-232
cultural factors, 68, 226, 227, 242-245
curriculum casualties, 25-26
decoding, 232
dialects, nonstandard, 227, 238-242
Hispanics, 123
institutional accreditation, 293-295, 300, 301-302
kindergarten, 130
paired reading, 232
preventive interventions, 136, 137
principals, 130
school-wide restructuring, 11, 230-233, 272, 325-326, 338
second-language speakers, 227, 233-238, 246, 333
socioeconomic status, 126, 128-129
specialists, use of, 333
teacher education vs, 288
time-on-task rates, see Time-on-task rates
university partnerships, 293
vocabulary development, 231, 232
see also Class size; Student-teacher ratios; Teachers
Screening and identification, 2, 85, 101-133, 159, 278
deaf children, 164-165
disabilities, 9, 132-133, 158, 159, 162-163, 318, 319
error detection by child's monitor, 72-73, 76, 213
miscue analysis, 73
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pediatricians, 9, 133, 158, 159, 162-163, 318, 319
preschool/kindergarten, 9, 318-319
prevalence, general, 96-99
research agenda, 336, 342, 344
second grade, 211-212
state action, 302
teacher education for, 279, 290, 296, 297, 298, 330, 332
see also Risk factors
Secondary education, see High school
Secondary prevention, see Remedial interventions
accomplishments required, 82, 210-211
alphabetic principle, 212
automaticity, 210
book reading, 211
decoding, 82
direct code instruction, 205-206
frequency of reading, 211
frustration level, 213
independent reading, 82, 211, 213, 214, 322-323
letter identification, 82
letter-sound relations, 82, 212, 322-323
monitoring, 222
oral reading, 215-216
paired reading, 215
phonemic awareness, 212
phonics, 205-206
reading comprehension, general, 82, 213, 214-215, 222
reciprocal teaching, 222
rereading, 82
school restructuring, 232
screening and identification, 211-212
second-language speakers, 236
socioeconomic status, 214-216
teachers, 211-212
teaching methods, 207-223
vocabulary, 215
vowels, 212
whole language instruction, 205-206
word recognition, 205-206, 212-213, 322-323
writing, 82
see also Primary grades, general
Second-language speakers, see English as a second language
comprehension and word knowledge, 63, 77
deaf children, 164
defined, 46
kindergarten, 111
storybook reading, 143
teacher education on, 288
vocabulary development and, 48
word form changes, 73
Sentences, 7
early childhood development, 48-49, 50, 108
first grade, 81
kindergarten, 80, 111, 116, 118
small-group instruction, 263
tutoring, Reading Recovery, 255
see also Grammar; Syntax
SES, see Socioeconomic status
Sesame Street, 57, 59, 278, 311-312
Sex differences, see Gender differences
Shared reading, see Group reading; Paired reading
Siblings, 119
Sight words, 6
deaf children, 164
tutoring, 259
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Small-group instruction, 12, 148, 192, 228, 231, 248, 262-264
phonological awareness, 250, 252
see also Group reading
Social development, 9, 15, 43, 44, 158
first grade, 262-264
listening skills, 64-65
literacy as societal goal, 1, 17-20, 29-30, 33-34, 156, 170, 292, 324-325
preschool intervention, 150, 168
special education, 168
teacher education, 285, 286, 292
see also Pragmatics
Socioeconomic status, 25, 27, 29-31, 94, 125-127
defined, 127
educational achievement and, 21
family factors and, 31, 119, 121, 125-127
phonics, 173
preventive interventions, 136, 137
school-based factors, 227
second grade, 214-216
second-language speakers, 235
vocabulary size and, 47
see also Poverty
Sounds, see Phonology
Spanish and Spanish speakers, 23, 27, 28-29, 123, 127, 156-158, 238, 316
first grade, 205
invented spelling, 59
kindergarten, 181
NAEP, 97
Special education, 89-90, 166-170, 248, 268-271
curricular design, 167-170, 269-270
fluency, 270
group reading, 270
motivation, 167-170
paired reading, 270
preschool preventive measures, 150, 166-170
referral for, 27
social development, 168
storybooks, 168
teachers, 167-168, 196, 269, 296-299, 333
word recognition, 270
see also Pediatricians; Reading specialists; Speech-language
therapists; Teachers
Special Strategies studies, 98
Speech, see Listening comprehension; Oral reading; Phonology; Spoken words
Speech impairments, 105, 165, 315
Speech-language therapists, 9, 158-159, 164, 165, 318, 333
see also Reading specialists
Speech sounds, see Phonology
defined, 22
early childhood development, 42, 43-44, 60, 66, 67, 70-71, 73
deaf children, 164
first grade, 81, 194, 195, 197, 198, 201-204, 206
first-third grades, 6, 7-8, 321, 323-324, 343
kindergarten, 80, 187-188, 189
models of development, 44-45, 72
nonstandard dialects, 238, 341
phonological considerations, general, 3, 22-23, 80-83, 194, 195, 198, 298, 322, 330, 343
teacher education, 296, 298, 330
third grade, 83
see also Invented spelling; Morphology; Phonics
early language development, 42, 46-47, 49, 50, 51, 320, 321, 324
kindergarten, 80, 179, 186-187, 188
school entry predictors, 108-109
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speech impairments, 105
teacher education on, 288
see also Alphabetic principle; Hearing impairments; Listening comprehension; Oral reading; Phonemic awareness; Phonological awareness; Phonology
Standards
criterion vsnorm referencing, 95-96
Head Start, 282
institutional accreditation, 293-295, 300, 301-302
national tests, 94; see also specific tests
publishers, 300
research agenda, 334-335
state-level actions, 291, 292-293, 295-296, 299, 300-304, 307
teacher education, 282, 291, 293-296, 302
see also Intelligence quotient
State government, 2, 18, 275, 277, 299-304, 317-318
basal programs, 190
curricular design, 300-301, 302, 304
disabilities, 282
first-third grades, 300
legislation, 302
libraries, 300
phonics, 302
preschool education, 277, 282, 300
preventive interventions, general, 302
screening and identification, 302
standards, 291, 292-293, 295-296, 299, 300-304, 307
teacher certification/standards, 282, 291, 292-293, 295-296, 299, 301-302
Storybooks
computer-assisted, 264
decoding, 143
early childhood development, general, 62-63, 80
kindergarten, 179-180, 183, 188
parent-child reading, 142-143, 145
phonological awareness, 112
special education, 168
see also Big books
Storytelling, 200-201, 231, 232, 244, 246, 262, 280, 281, 318, 332
Student-teacher ratios, 11, 230, 231, 256, 282, 328
kindergarten, 178-179
see also Class size; Small-group instruction; Tutors and tutoring
Success For All, 230-233
Summarizing
first grade, 195
first-third grades, 6, 7, 322, 323
school restructuring, 232
third grade, 83
Sweden, 236
African American dialect, 239
defined, 22
first grade, 81
rebus books, 182
Syntax
early childhood development, 48, 53, 74, 75, 318, 332
first-third grades, 6, 321, 322, 343, 344
kindergarten, 111
school-entry predictors, 107, 110
second-language speakers, 11, 325, 340
teacher education, 280, 288, 332
T
Talking books, 264
Teacher aids, 263
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Teacher certification, 282, 291, 292-293, 295-296, 301-302
Teacher education, 9-10, 11, 273, 278-299, 327, 329-331
alphabetic principle, 285, 288, 294-295, 296, 330
audiovisual presentations, 289-290
automaticity, 285
bilingual education, 285, 288, 297-298, 330
case-based instruction, 289-290
cultural factors, 299
curricular design, 279-282, 294, 296, 330
emergent literary skills, 288, 296, 297, 330, 331, 332
explicit instruction, 287
families, 297
federal action, 284, 289, 294, 306
grammar, 298
group education, 292-293
independent reading, 296
institutional accreditation, 293-295, 300, 301-302
language skills, general, 282, 284, 285, 330
letter-sound relations, 285, 294-295
metacognition, 286
models of, 291-292
morphology, 330
letter-sound relations, 285, 294-295
phonics, 296
phonological awareness, 284, 288, 298, 330
poor training as risk factor, 26, 289, 291
poverty as risk factor, 296
pragmatics, 288
preschool teachers, 279-283, 331-332
preventive interventions, 10, 287, 332
principals' involvement, 130
print media, general, 288, 332
problem-solving activities, 290
psychological factors, about, 285, 286, 287, 288, 292
reading comprehension, general, 296, 330
remedial education, about, 287, 298
rhetorical structures, about, 280, 285, 288
screening and identification, about, 279, 290, 296, 297, 298, 330, 332
second-language speakers, teachers of, 296, 297-299, 330, 332
semantics, 288
social development, 285, 286, 292
special education, 269
spoken words, 288
standards, 282, 291, 293-296, 302
theoretical issues, 292, 298, 329
tutoring, 255, 256, 258, 259, 260, 261, 273
verbal abilities, general, 285, 288
see also Teacher certification
attitudes of, 26, 124, 229, 288, 331, 332
awards for, 306
bilingual, 136
child-teacher interaction, 26, 124, 130, 177, 229, 230
employment issues, 331
local government action, 305
nonstandard dialect students and, 124, 241-242
parent educators, 143
principals' involvement with, 130
publishers relations with, 307-309
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school-based risk factors, 129-130
second grade, 211-212
special education, 167-168, 196, 269, 296-299, 333
state-level action, 282, 291, 292-293, 295-296, 299, 301-302
see also Student-teacher ratios; Tutors and tutoring
Teaching materials, see Instructional materials
Teaching methods, 2, 3, 25-27, 32-33, 100, 172-178, 285, 314-315
computer-assisted instruction, 59, 188, 248, 252-253, 264-266, 334, 342-343
concurrent instruction, 136
direct code instruction, 199, 202, 204, 205-206
embedded phonics instruction, 199, 201-202, 204-206
first grade, 172, 173, 177-178, 194-210
kindergarten, 177, 178-194, 250
metacognition, 220-223
modality teaching, 271
nonstandard dialects, 239-241
play-based instruction, 183-184, 188, 189-190, 191, 223, 306, 320, 321
reciprocal teaching, 139, 221-222
second and third grades, 207, 210-223
special education, 269
whole language instruction, 199-201, 205-206
see also Basal reading; Explicit instruction; Group reading; Homework; Preventive interventions; Small-group instruction; Teacher education; Tutors and tutoring
Television, 57, 59, 143, 278, 310-312
Tests and testing, 2
criterion vsnorm referencing, 95-96
family environment, 122
letter-sound correspondence, 115
multiple risk factors, 118
performance-based, 199
Qualitative Reading Inventory, 216
research agenda, 336-337
Spanish-language, 123
speech discrimination vsphonological awareness, 55
standard measures inadequate, 90-91, 94
vocabulary, 109
see also High School and Beyond; Intelligence quotient; National Assessment of Educational Progress
Texas, 304
local government, 304
political factors, 304
state-level action, 300, 302-304, 307
theoretical issues, 308
Theoretical issues, 34-39
controversial interventions, 271
parent-child reading, 144
phonological awareness, 52, 54, 248
research methodology, general, 33, 34-39, 176, 256-257
classificatory analysis, 117
correlational studies, general, 39, 101-103, 135, 178
prevention efforts, 135-136
prospective analyses, 37-38, 90
systematic replication, 34-35
second-language speakers, 237-238
teacher education, 292, 298, 329
textbooks, 308
word recognition, 236-237
accomplishments required, 83, 210-211
audiovisual presentations, 83
automaticity, 210
basal reading, 214
cognitive development, 219
conceptual knowledge, 219-220
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frequency of reading, 214
independent reading, 213
letter-sound relations, 83
monitoring, 222
oral reading, 83
reading comprehension, general, 83, 213, 219-220, 222
recall, 213
rereading, 214
spelling, 83
see also Primary grades, general
Time-on-task rates, 129, 130, 177, 229, 230, 238, 272
Title I, see Elementary and Secondary Education Act
Toys, 59
Tutors and tutoring, 12, 207, 231, 248, 254-262, 326-327, 333
alphabetic principle, 259, 261
automaticity, 259
book reading, 255, 257, 259, 261
consonants, 259
curricular design, 255, 258, 259, 261
experimental studies, 256, 257-258
independent reading, 255
invented spelling, 259-260
letter recognition, 255, 259, 261
metalinguistic factors, 258
letter-sound relations, 259, 261
poor children, 260
second-language speakers, 260
sentences, 255
sight words, 259
time-on-task, 255-256, 257, 261
training of, 255, 256, 258, 259, 260, 261, 273
vowels, 259
see alsoReading specialists
U
Urban areas, 30-31, 98, 229, 239, 290, 315, 327-328
V
Verbal abilities, general, 108-110, 302, 318, 322
family interactions, 121, 122-123, 127, 139-141, 143, 171
see also Oral reading; Spoken words; Vocabulary
Videotapes, see Audiovisual presentations
Visual impairments, 89, 105, 271
Visual skills, 116
African Americans, 156
comprehension and word knowledge, 63, 67, 216-219, 220
defined, 46-48
early language development, 47, 57, 63, 67, 75, 79, 107, 109
first-third grades, 6, 48, 321, 322, 344
high school, 48
parental involvement, 139, 319
phonics and, 173
preschool, 107, 109-111, 148, 170, 280, 318, 319, 320, 321
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reading comprehension and, general, 63, 67, 216-219, 220
school restructuring, 231, 232
second grade, 215
second-language speakers, 11, 325
semantics and, 48
socioeconomic status, 47
spelling and, 6, 321, 322, 344
tests and testing, 109
see also Naming; Sight words; Word games; Word recognition
Voluntary reading, 81-83
Volunteer tutors, 12, 162, 273, 328
Vowels
African American dialect, 239
first grade, 198
invented spelling, 59
second grade, 212
syllable defined, 22
tutoring, 259
W
Welfare reform, 320
Whole language instruction, 199-201, 205-206
Word games, 143, 151-152, 187, 203, 204, 208
riddles, 223
see also Rhymes and rhyming
Word recognition, 4, 6, 7, 15, 220, 272, 315-316, 322, 343
automaticity and, 75, 79, 90, 252-253;
see also Sight words
computer-based interventions, 252-253
curriculum casualties, 25-26
early childhood development, 50, 53, 62, 65-67, 70-75, 79, 80, 111
first grade, 194, 198, 204, 205-206, 262
fourth grade, 214
kindergarten, 180, 181-182, 188, 189, 249, 251, 322
models of, 214
neuroscience, 24
reading disabled children, 252-254
second grade, 205-206, 212-213, 322-323
second-language speakers, 236-237
small-group instruction, 262, 263
social development and, 262, 263
special education, 270
theoretical issues, 236-237
third-fourth grades, 214
see also Alphabetic principle; Automaticity; Frustration level; Semantics; Spoken words; Word games
computer-assisted instruction, 265
early childhood development, 42, 57, 59-60, 69-70, 142, 149
deaf children, 164
first grade, 81, 196, 197, 198, 200, 204, 207, 209
first-third grades, 6, 7, 285, 321-322
Head Start, 281
kindergarten, 183-184, 188, 189, 191
literacy defined, 42
preventive interventions, 278
second grade, 82
small-group instruction, 263
state action, 302
teacher education, 280, 285, 296, 298
see also Alphabetic principle; Emergent writing; Spelling