INDEX
A
Ability grouping, 31, 33, 82, 90
see also Tracking and placement
Accommodations/adaptations
English-language learners, 7, 24, 80, 214-219, 226-230, 231-232, 284, 296-297
exemption from assessment, 215-218, 219, 226, 233
oral reading of/responses to questions, 80, 216, 218
translation of tests, 216, 218, 219, 221, 222-223, 226, 227, 229-230, 297
students with disabilities, 7, 24, 80, 195-206, 293-295
computer-assisted testing, 195, 203, 293
individualized education programs, 33, 188-189, 191-193, 194, 195, 204, 294, 295
legal issues, 55(n.6), 190-193 (passim), 198-199
scoring, general, 197, 199, 200, 201, 202, 206, 293, 295
see also Bilingual education;
Special education
Accountability, 1, 2, 5, 13, 39, 273, 274, 278
English-language learners, 7, 217, 296, 298
independent oversight body, 256-257
legal issues, 18, 65, 189, 192, 193, 198, 200
promotion/retention in grade, 115, 127, 132
school-based factors, 2, 5, 15, 16, 21, 29-31, 35, 40, 274, 278
school districts, 2, 5, 35, 274, 278
English-language learners, 217
students with disabilities, 189
standards-based reform, general 13-14, 15, 36, 132, 199, 206, 273, 288-289
students, general, 1, 2, 5, 15, 16, 21, 165
students with disabilities, 7, 118, 189, 192, 193, 198, 292
see also Standards
Accuracy of measurement, 4, 14, 20, 23, 265, 280, 284
cutscores, 96, 99-100, 124, 166
English-language learners, 7, 66, 214, 226, 229-230, 232, 296
graduation requirements, 163, 166, 276, 287
labeling strategies, 263
promotion/retention in grade, 116, 119, 124, 276
reading and mathematics achievement, 2, 16, 24, 273, 274
students with disabilities, 7, 193, 198, 201
tracking, 97, 99-100, 101, 276
voluntary national tests, 15, 242, 243, 291
see also Error of measurement;
Predictive validity
Achievement, general, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 14, 23, 35, 273, 274, 281, 295, 300
English-language learners, 217, 296, 297
international comparisons, 7, 18, 174, 238-239, 241, 290, 291
see also Competency testing;
Graduation requirements;
Mathematics achievement;
Multiple assessment criteria;
Performance standards;
Promotion/retention in grade;
Reading achievement;
Science achievement;
Tracking and placement;
Writing achievement
ADA, see Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
Adaptations, see Accommodations/adaptations
Administration procedures, testing, 7, 55(n.6), 216, 274
fairness, general, 78-79, 80-81
graduation tests,
adequate notice of testing, 51, 63-64, 163, 289
retaking of tests
graduation tests, 165, 178, 180, 181, 182, 220, 243, 289, 292
promotion/retention in grade, 127(n.11), 132, 133, 135, 287, 291
test length and time, 24, 195, 199, 203, 206, 216, 218, 219, 293
tracking, 100-101
voluntary national tests, 15, 238, 239
see Accommodations/adaptations
Administrative law, 8, 17, 248, 251, 264-268, 301
discrimination and funding, 58
Advanced diplomas, 180, 181, 182
Advanced placement, 95, 98, 99, 100, 106, 126, 219, 225, 240, 289, 291
see also Gifted and talented students
African Americans
discrimination against, 20, 21, 53-54, 56, 57
dropouts, employment of, 177
graduation tests, 175-176
kindergarten retention, 119
retention in grade, 119, 122, 137, 148, 155-156, 157, 281
employment of diploma holders, 176
English-language learners, 212, 216
kindergarten, 118-120
retention in grade, 5, 120-122, 133, 136, 137, 147-158, 281, 286
tracking, 98
see also Developmental factors;
Grade-level factors
American Association of Mexican-American Educators v. California, 58, 59, 60
American College Test, 19, 20, 60, 61
American Educational Research Association, see Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
American Federation of Teachers, 37, 45, 115, 128(n.13)
American Psychological Association, see Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, 18, 188, 191, 196, 198
Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery, 19, 20
Athletes, 20-21
Attendance requirements and records, 6, 43, 279
graduation requirements, 164, 174, 279, 288
promotion/retention in grade, 115, 116, 124, 130, 284
Attitudes
expectations of and by students, 5, 102-103, 282
promotion/retention in grade, 125, 284, 285
emotional problems, 91, 190, 293
low-tracking, 5, 101-105, 276, 281, 282
teachers, 5, 14, 103, 284, 287
Attribution of cause, general, 296
B
Beliefs, see Attitudes
Bias, see Discrimination; Error of measurement; Fairness
Bilingual education, 33, 46, 211, 212, 216, 219, 221, 224-225, 283, 296
translation of tests, 216, 218, 219, 221-224, 226, 227, 229-230, 297
see also English-language learners
Black persons, see African Americans
Board of Education of New York v. Harris, 59
Board on Testing and Assessment, v, 67, 188
Buckley Amendment, see Family Education Rights and Privacy Act of 1974
Bureau of Census, 117, 118-119, 136
Current Population Survey, 118, 137, 281
C
Civil Rights Act of 1964, 58, 211, 265, 266, 267, 301
Classroom practice, see Instructional factors
Clinton Administration, v, 13, 14, 41, 42, 114-115, 284-285
Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education, 8, 17, 82, 249-250, 262, 266, 268
Code of Professional Responsibilities in Educational Measurement, 83
Cognitive factors and theory, 17
see Learning disabilities; Retardation
College admissions exams, 33, 45, 76, 82, 181, 199, 205
SAT, 19-20, 33, 60, 182, 215, 216, 240
Compensatory models, 165-166, 180
English-language learners, 213
Competency testing, 38-39, 163, 287, 288
discrimination, litigation, 21, 38, 52, 53, 56, 57, 63-64, 163, 171, 178, 179, 183, 251-252
public opinion, 44
see Graduation requirements; Promotion/retention in grade
Computer technology
assisted testing, 195, 202, 203, 218, 293
low-tracking, impacts of, 103
Confidentiality of students' records, 18, 201, 251
Conjunctive models, 165
Constitutional law, 38, 50-59 (passim), 61, 251-252
Constructed-response items, 24, 36, 169, 181, 274
English-language learners, 226
fairness, 81
reliability, 72
defined, 72
English-language learners, accommodations, 80, 225, 297
fairness, general, 78-79, 81-82
multiple assessment criteria, 74
predictive validity and, 75, 77-78, 79, 82
promotion/retention decisions, 124
reliability and, 72
students with disabilities, accommodations, 80, 196-198, 201, 293
Content coverage, 2, 29, 36, 40, 74, 75
English-language learners, 226
graduation tests, 167-168, 169, 177-179
promotion/retention in grade, 124-125
students with disabilities, 199
tracking and, 98
see also Curriculum
Cost-effectiveness factors, 23, 275
graduation tests, 172
post-secondary remediation, 45
standardized tests, general, 30
students with disabilities, 194
validation of tests, 67
Council of Chief State School Officers State Collaboration on Assessment and Student Standards, 205, 215, 232
CRESST, see National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards and Student Testing
Criterion-referenced testing, 76, 82, 93, 94, 127, 165, 265
Cultural factors, 62, 212, 214, 218, 225, 248
intelligence tests, 31-32
see also Discrimination;
English-language learners
Current Population Survey, 118, 137, 281
Curriculum, 6, 29, 36, 37, 39, 278
graduation tests, 164, 172-173, 177-179, 181, 288
legal requirements, 25, 38, 51, 64-65, 66
overlap across grades, 114
promotion/retention in grade, 125, 287
standards, 37
students with disabilities, 198
individualized education programs, 33, 188-189, 191-193, 194, 195, 204, 294, 295
tracking, 103-105
validity, general, 3, 64-65, 275, 277-278
voluntary national tests, 65
see also Bilingual education;
Teaching to the test;
Test preparation;
Tracking and placement
Cutscores, 98
accuracy of, 96, 99-100, 124, 166
graduation requirements, 98, 166, 168-170, 289, 290
legal issues, 55(n.6), 60, 64, 252
promotion/retention in grade, 116, 125-127, 128, 287
D
Debra P. v. Turlington, 21, 38, 52, 53, 56, 57, 63-64, 163, 171, 178, 179, 183, 251-252, 277
Department of Education, 65, 67-68, 265, 267, 268, 290
see also National Center for Education Statistics;
terms beginning "National Center…" and "Office of…"
Developmental factors, promotion/retention in grade, 124, 279, 284
see also Age factors;
Learning disabilities;
Retardation
Diana v. Board of Education, 54, 61
Diplomas, see Graduation requirements
Disabilities, see Learning disabilities; Students with disabilities
Discrimination, 1, 2, 9, 16, 17, 21, 23, 25, 26, 45-46, 273
African Americans, 20, 21, 53-54, 56, 57
historical perspectives, 20, 32
legal issues, 18, 51-63, 67, 215, 218
disparate impact, 57-62
intelligence tests, 53-55
intentional discrimination, 52-55
segregation/desegregation, 21, 32, 53, 55-57
retention in grade, 131-132
students with disabilities, 191, 201
voluntary national tests, 239, 290
Dropouts, 8
employment, 177
graduation tests, 172, 174-176
retention in grade and, 130, 131, 151, 155-156, 181, 285
students with disabilities, 189
E
Economic factors, see Cost-effectiveness factors; Funding; Poverty; Socioeconomic status
Educable mentally retarded, 21, 53-55, 91, 93-94
see also Special education
Educating One and All: Students with Disabilities and Standards-Based Reform, 188, 191-201 (passim)
Educational Testing Service, 205, 252
Education Amendments of 1972, 58, 266, 301
Education reform, 13-14, 34, 40
Clinton Administration, v, 13, 14, 41, 42, 114-115, 284-285
standards-based, general, 13-14, 15, 36, 132, 199, 206, 273, 288-289
students with disabilities, 195
see also Accountability;
Cost-effectiveness factors
Effectiveness of treatment, general, 3, 23, 275
Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, 15, 18, 25, 35, 40, 63
see also Improving America's Schools Act
English-language learners, 212, 226(n.5)
promotion/retention in grade, 120-121, 126-127, 129, 133, 137-146, 149-153, 285, 286
remediation, 133
see also Kindergarten;
Voluntary-national tests
Elston v. Talladega County Board of Education, 58(n.12)
Emotional problems, 91, 190, 293
Employment factors
diploma holders, 176-177
see also Job qualifications and testing
English-language learners, 3, 4, 7, 16, 24, 25, 40-41, 46, 81, 211-237, 274, 280, 281, 296-298
accountability, 7, 217, 296, 298
accuracy of measurement, general, 7, 66, 214, 226, 229-230, 232, 296
exclusion/exemption from assessment, 214, 215-218, 219, 226, 233
graduation tests, 175-176, 219-225, 233, 289, 298
learning disabilities, 213-214
legal issues, 63, 66, 211, 212, 265
discrimination, 50, 51, 54, 61, 62-63, 215, 218
mathematics achievement, 24, 213, 216, 223, 226(n.5), 228, 229
multiple assessment criteria, 216, 218, 298
National Assessment of Educational Progress, 226, 228, 231
oral language proficiency, 217, 222, 224, 226, 229
participation, 24, 204, 212-214, 226-227, 228, 229, 231, 265, 296, 298
performance standards, general, 226, 233
promotion/retention in grade, 125-126, 219-220, 224-225, 298
psychometrics, general, 219, 225-230, 298
reading achievement, 24, 215, 216, 229, 298
oral reading of/responses to questions, 80, 216, 218
remedial instruction, 213
school districts, 213, 217, 222-224
scores and scoring criteria, 214, 217, 223, 226, 296, 297, 298
state actions, 63, 213, 214-224, 229-230, 232, 233
tracking, 4-5, 95, 98, 99, 101, 105-106, 213, 219-220, 224-225, 284, 298
validity issues, 225, 231, 296, 297
construct validity, 80, 225, 297
writing achievement, 215, 216-217, 221, 223, 229, 298
see also Accommodations/adaptations;
Bilingual education
Equal educational opportunity, see Discrimination
Equal Education Opportunities Act of 1974, 63
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 59
Error of measurement, 3, 14, 76, 124, 279
English-language learners, 226
standard error, 72-73
students with disabilities, accommodations, 196
see also Accuracy of measurement
Evaluation
see also Attribution of cause;
Fairness;
Program evaluation;
Reliability
Evaluation for the Voluntary National Tests: Phase 1, v, 18
Exclusion from assessment
English-language learners, 214, 215-218, 219, 226, 233
students with disabilities, 193, 195, 204
Expectations, see Attitudes
Expert judgment, 60, 74, 168, 206, 213-214, 254, 256-257, 259, 289, 297
IQ testing, 54
students with disabilities, 192
tracking, 99
F
Fairness, 1, 14, 15, 17, 25, 31, 39, 71, 74, 78-82, 191-192, 276
administration procedures, general, 78-79, 80-81
Department of Education standards, 67-68
English-language learners, 226
graduation tests, 177-178
promotion/retention in grade, 82, 134-135
students with disabilities,
see also Discrimination
Family Education Rights and Privacy Act of 1974, 18, 251
Federal government, 8
see also Clinton Administration;
Funding;
Department of Education;
Legislation;
Voluntary national tests
Foreign countries, see International perspectives
Foreign-language speakers, see Bilingual education; English-language learners; Translation of tests
Fourteenth Amendment, see Constitutional law
Funding, 263-264, 266-267, 301
disadvantaged populations, 15, 18(n.2), 33, 211, 264
discrimination and, 57-58
English-language learners, 219, 221, 231, 232
graduation tests, preparation, 183
minimum competency testing and, 15
state funding,
remediation programs, 133
students with disabilities, 190, 204
see also Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965
G
Gender factors, 81
graduation tests/diplomas, 81, 176-177, 289
legal issues, 51, 52, 59(n.15), 60
promotion/retention in grade, 5, 118, 119, 122, 125, 130, 134, 137, 148, 150, 154-155, 156, 157, 281
tracking, 95, 98, 99, 100-101, 281
Georgia State Conference of Branches of NAACP v. Georgia, 57, 58(n.12), 62
Gifted and talented students, 4, 91, 93, 97, 106, 219, 280, 282, 283
Goals 2000: Educate America Act, 18, 188, 196, 205-206, 211, 232, 292, 296
Government, see Federal government; Political factors; State government
Grade-level factors, achievement variations, 114
see also Elementary school;
Kindergarten;
Promotion/retention in grade;
Secondary school
Grade retention, see Promotion/retention in grade
Grades, teacher-assigned, 6, 37, 279, 295
grade point average, 33
graduation requirements, 180, 181-182
promotion/retention in grade, 124
tracking, 100
Graduation requirements, 1, 2, 4, 14, 16, 22, 25, 37, 163-187, 273, 287-290
accuracy of measurement, general, 163, 166, 276, 287
adequate notice of testing, 51, 63-64, 163, 289
administration procedures,
adequate notice of testing, 51, 63-64, 163, 289
retaking of tests, 165, 178, 180, 181, 182, 220, 243, 289, 292
African Americans, 175-176
attendance records, 164, 174, 279, 288
content coverage, 167-168, 169, 177-179
curriculum and, 164, 172-173, 177-179, 181, 288
cutscores, 98, 166, 168-170, 289, 290
diploma denial, alternative/complementary strategies, 179-183
dropping out and, 172, 174-176
employment opportunities and, 58, 59(n.15), 61, 76, 82(n.1), 163, 176-177, 180, 194, 222, 251, 288, 289
English-language learners, 175-176, 219-225, 233, 289, 298
exit exams, 39, 45, 63, 165, 194
fairness, general, 177-178
gender factors, 81, 176-177, 289
grades, teacher assigned, 180, 181-182
Hispanics, 175-176
impacts of, 172-177
instructional factors, 164, 172-173, 178-179, 181
discrimination, 18, 25, 38, 50-56 (passim), 63, 64
litigation, 38, 52, 53, 56, 63, 163, 171, 178
multiple assessment criteria, 165-166, 179, 180, 279, 288, 290
National Assessment of Educational Progress, 182, 289
predictive validity, 170-171
professional/public interest groups, opinions, 45
psychometrics, general, 166, 168, 169, 219, 288, 289
racial/ethnic factors, 20, 56, 167, 175-176, 289
remedial instruction, 169, 171, 177, 180, 182-183, 289
scoring and scoring criteria, 166, 177-178, 288, 290
special/differentiated diplomas, 37, 170, 180-181, 194, 289, 290, 295
advanced diplomas, 180, 181, 182
state government role, 37, 38, 39, 163-165, 167, 170, 178, 179, 180-181, 288, 289
end-of-course exams, 181-182, 289, 290
English-language learners, 219-224, 233
students with disabilities, 194, 198, 289
test administration procedures, retaking of tests, 165, 178, 180, 181, 182, 220, 243, 289, 292
test preparation, 169, 171, 177-178, 182-183, 289, 290
adequate notice of testing, 51, 63-64, 163, 289
remedial instruction, 169, 171, 177, 180, 182-183, 289
validity issues, 167-171, 172, 177-178
voluntary national tests, 7-8, 25, 239, 243, 290, 291-292
writing achievement, 165, 167, 170,
Groves v. Alabama State Board of Education, 38(n.12/n.13), 60
H
High school, see Graduation requirements; Secondary school
Hispanics, 46, 54, 95, 106, 212, 218, 227
dropouts, employment of, 177
exemption from testing, 215-218
graduation tests, 175-176
promotion/retention in grade, 119, 122, 148, 155-156, 157, 225
Historical perspectives, 25, 36
discrimination litigation, 52-62
graduation tests, 163
intelligence testing, 31-32
kindergarten retention, 118-119
litigation, 17-18
retention in grade, 117-122, 136, 138-158, 286
standardized test use, general, 15, 19, 20-21, 29, 31-33
Hobson v. Hansen, 53
Homogeneous grouping, 90-91
see also Tracking and placement
I
IDEA, see Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997
IEP, see Individualized education programs
Improving America's Schools Act, 51, 62-63, 65-66, 188, 196, 211, 219, 264-267, 292, 296
Improving Schooling for Language-Minority Children, 212-213, 220-221, 220-221, 226, 230
Indicator systems
students with disabilities, 190
Individualized education programs, 33, 188-189, 191-193, 194, 195, 204, 294, 295
Individualized instruction, see Tutors and tutoring
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997, 18, 33, 40, 188-190, 191-192, 196, 198, 251, 262, 292, 293
Instructional factors, 6, 29-30, 36, 40
English-language learners, 220, 297
graduation tests and, 164, 172-173, 178-179, 181
poor teaching, 5
students with disabilities, 198
validity and, 3, 64-65, 77, 277
discrimination litigation, 53-55
kindergarten, 119
promotion/retention in grade, 119, 129
International perspectives, 238
differentiated diplomas, 180-181
Second International Mathematics Study, 92-93
Third International Mathematics and Science Study, 7, 18, 174, 241, 290, 291
Iowa Test of Basic Skills, 30-31, 132, 261
IQ testing, see Intelligence tests
Item response theory (IRT), 202-203
J
Job qualifications and testing, 58, 59(n.15), 61, 76, 82(n.1), 163, 176-177, 180, 194, 222, 251, 288, 289
teacher certification, 59(n.15), 60
Joint Committee on Testing Practices, 206
Joint Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing see Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
K
Kindergarten, 95, 117, 131-132, 133, 137, 285
extended, 114, 118-120, 122, 137, 146-149
L
Language factors, see Bilingual education; English-language learners
Larry P. v. Riles, 21, 53-54, 55, 58, 59, 60, 61-62, 252, 299
Law, see Legal issues; Legislation
Learning disabilities, 91, 190, 293
English-language learners with, 213-214
legal issues, 188
see also Educable mentally retarded
Legal issues, general, 4, 8, 17-18, 25, 50-70, 248, 251-252
accommodations
English-language learners, 63, 211
students with disabilities, 55(n.6), 190-193 (passim), 198-199
accountability, 18, 65, 189, 192, 193, 198, 200
cutscores, 55(n.6), 60, 64, 252
discrimination, 18, 51-63, 67, 215, 218
disparate impact, 57-62
intentional discrimination, 52-55
segregation/desegregation, 21, 32, 53, 55-57
English-language learners, 63, 66, 211, 212, 265, 296
discrimination, 50, 51, 54, 61, 62-63, 215, 218
gender factors, 51, 52, 59(n.15), 60
graduation requirements, 163, 288
discrimination, 18, 25, 38, 50-56 (passim), 63, 64
instructional factors, 64-65, 66
learning disabilities, 188
multiple assessment criteria, 61
promotion/retention in grade, 50-51, 52, 55, 198
reliability, 55(n.6)
remedial instruction, 53, 55, 57
scaling, 55(n.6)
special education, 18, 50, 55, 190, 191-192, 193
students with disabilities, 18, 33, 40, 58(n.10), 188-195 (passim), 198, 201, 292
individualized education programs, 33, 188-189, 191-193
validity of tests, 6, 55(n.6), 60, 63, 64-65, 67
see also Administrative law;
Constitutional law;
specific court cases
Legislation
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, 18, 188, 191, 196, 198
Civil Rights Act of 1964, 58, 211, 265, 266, 267, 301
Education Amendments of 1972, 58, 266, 301
Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, 15, 18, 25, 35, 40, 63
Equal Education Opportunities Act of 1974, 63
Family Education Rights and Privacy Act of 1974, 18, 251
Goals 2000: Educate America Act, 18, 188, 196, 205-206, 211, 232, 292, 296
Improving America's Schools Act, 51, 62-63, 65-66, 188, 196, 211, 219, 264-267, 292, 296
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997, 18, 33, 40, 188-190, 191-192, 196, 198, 251, 262, 292, 293
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 18, 58(n.10), 188, 191, 196
study at hand, mandate, xv, 1-2, 22-24
Literacy, see English-language learners; Reading achievement; Writing achievement
Local education authorities, see School districts
Low-income factors, see Poverty
M
Mass media, 19-20, 31, 33, 261, 262
Mathematics achievement, 1-2, 24, 38, 273
accuracy of measurement, 2, 16, 24, 273, 274
English-language learners, 24, 213, 216, 223, 226(n.5), 228, 229
minimum competency testing, 38, 126-127, 179
Second International Mathematics Study, 92-93
students with disabilities, 24, 197-198
Third International Mathematics and Science Study, 7, 18, 174, 241, 290, 291
McNeal v. Tate County School District, 57
Mental Measurement Yearbooks, 17
Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund, 46
Minimum competency testing, see Competency testing
Minorities, see English-language learners; Race/ethnicity; specific groups
Motivation, see Attitudes
Multiple assessment criteria, 6, 8, 24, 37, 179, 261
construct validity and, 74
English-language learners, 216, 218, 298
graduation requirements, 165-166, 179, 180, 279, 288, 290
legal issues, 61
portfolios, 24, 216, 218, 265-266, 274
promotion/retention in grade, 6, 24, 37, 124, 135, 279, 284-285, 286
scoring and, general, 6, 97-98
students with disabilities, 192, 295
see also Individualized education programs
tracking, 93, 94, 97-98, 100, 279, 284
see also Attendance requirements and records;
Grades, teacher-assigned;
Student portfolios
Multiple-choice items, 24, 36, 81, 94, 163, 165, 169-170, 265, 274
N
NAEP, see National Assessment of Educational Progress
National Academy of Education, 204, 232
National Academy of Sciences, 205
National Assessment of Educational Progress, 7, 15, 19, 34, 99, 126
English-language learners, 226, 228, 231
graduation exams requirements, 182, 289
students with disabilities, 200, 204, 206
voluntary national tests and, 239-243 (passim), 290, 291
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, 45, 57, 58(n.12), 62
National Center for Education Statistics
English-language learners, 226, 231
students with disabilities, 200, 204
National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards and Students Testing, 205, 228, 233, 263
National Commission on Testing and Public Policy, 251, 256, 263
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 179
National Council on Measurement in Education, see Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
National Educational Goals Panel, 94-95, 119
National Education Longitudinal Study; 130, 174
National Research Council, 205-206, 233
New York Urban League, Inc. v. New York, 58, 59
Non-native English speakers, see English-language learners
Norm-referenced testing, 30, 51, 62, 94, 165(n.3), 216-217, 225, 249, 264, 297
O
Office of Technology Assessment, 17, 250
Open-response items, see Constructed-response items
P
accountability, 5
adequate notice of testing, 63-64
English-language learners, parents of, 232
labeling approach to test use, 262
school record inspection, 18
students with disabilities, 189, 195
Parents in Action on Special Education (PASE) v. Hannon, 55, 299
Parent-Teachers Association, 45
Pedagogy, see Instructional factors
People Who Care v. Rockford Board of Education, 21, 53
Performance standards, 1, 36, 40, 46, 265, 291
conjunctive vs compensatory models, 165-166
English-language learners, 226, 233
legal issues, non-legislative, 51
legislation, 18(n.2)
reliability and, 72-73
students with disabilities, 189-190, 201-202, 203, 292-293
see also Cutscores;
Voluntary national tests
Personnel Administrator v. Feeney, 52-53
Placement, see Tracking and placement
Political factors, v, 1, 15, 24-25, 30, 33, 39-47, 170, 248, 285, 298
deliberative forums, 253-255, 299-300
independent oversight bodies, 256-257
validity issues, 30-31, 35, 39
see also Accountability;
Clinton Administration;
Education reform
Portfolios, see Student portfolios
English-language learners, 211, 212
funding for disadvantaged populations, 15, 18(n.2), 33, 211, 264
graduation requirements, 174, 176, 281, 289
public opinion, 43
retention in grade and, 119, 130, 131, 280, 281
tracking, 92, 95, 98, 100, 103, 105-106, 283
voluntary national testing, 41
Predictive validity, 75, 77-78, 79, 82
defined, 82(n.1)
graduation tests, 170-171
item response theory, 202
promotion/retention in grade, 123, 127
students with disabilities, accommodations, 200, 201
tracking, 97-98, 101-102, 240, 283-284
voluntary national tests, 240, 291
Program evaluation, 15, 35, 40
Promotion/retention in grade, 1, 2, 4, 6, 14, 16, 22, 25, 26, 37, 42, 114-162, 273, 278, 284-287, 298
accuracy issues, 116, 119, 124, 276
African Americans, 119, 122, 137, 148, 155-156, 157, 281
age factors, retention, 5, 120-122, 133, 136, 137, 147-158, 281, 286
alternatives to retention, 132-133, 285, 287
see also Social promotion
remedial education and, 6, 115, 116, 132-133, 285, 287
attendance records, 115, 116, 124, 130, 284
construct validity issues, 124
content coverage, 124-125
cutscores, 116, 125-127, 128, 287
developmental factors, 124, 279, 284
discrimination, 131-132
dropping out, retention and, 130, 131, 151, 155-156, 181, 285
elementary school, 120-121, 126-127, 129, 133, 137-146, 149-153, 285, 286
English-language learners, 125-126, 219-220, 224-225, 298
gender factors, 5, 118, 119, 122, 125, 130, 134, 137, 148, 150, 154-155, 156, 157, 281
historical perspectives, 117-122, 136, 138-158, 286
impacts on student, 3, 128-132, 285
kindergarten, 95, 117, 131-132, 133, 137, 285
extended, 114, 118-120, 122, 137, 146-149
legal issues, 50-51, 52, 55, 198
multiple assessment criteria, 6, 24, 37, 124, 135, 279, 284-285, 286
professional/public interest groups, opinions, 45
psychometrics, general, 123, 286, 287
public opinion, 43
racial/ethnic factors, 118, 119, 122, 125, 130, 131-132, 134, 137, 150, 154, 155-157, 281
reading achievement, 125, 126-127
remedial instruction, 6, 115, 116, 132-133, 285, 287
retaking of tests, 127(n.11), 132, 133, 135, 287, 291
scoring issues, 123, 124, 125, 129, 286, 287
secondary school, 120-121, 129, 130, 137-146, 149-152, 153, 286
socioeconomic status, 130
poverty, 119, 130, 131, 280, 281
standardized tests, general, 116, 123-124, 127-128
state government role, 115-116, 123, 126, 133, 136, 284
students with disabilities, 125, 126, 193, 198
teacher recommendations, 6, 284
trends in retention, 117-122, 136, 138-146
validity issues, 123-124, 134-135, 286
voluntary national tests, 7-8, 25, 239, 241-243, 290, 291, 292
see also Graduation requirements;
Social promotion
Psychometrics, general, 4, 25, 71, 73, 77, 78
English-language learners, 219, 225-230, 298
graduation tests, 166, 168, 169, 219, 288, 289
promotion/retention in grade, 123, 286, 287
students with disabilities, accommodations, 196-202, 205
see also Fairness;
Item response theory;
Reliability;
Validity
Public opinion, 1, 14, 17, 19, 23, 24, 25, 30, 43-45
mass media, 19-20, 31, 33, 261, 262
R
Race/ethnicity, 4, 14, 16, 20, 276, 280
athletes, 20
dropouts, employment of, 177
graduation tests, 20, 56, 167, 175-176, 289
promotion/retention in grade, 118, 119, 122, 125, 130, 131-132, 134, 137, 150, 154, 155-157, 281
tracking, 21, 93-94, 95, 98, 99, 100-101, 103, 105-106, 281, 283
voluntary national testing, 41
see also Cultural factors;
Discrimination;
English-language learners;
specific groups
Readiness, see Graduation requirements; Promotion/retention in grade
Reading achievement, 1-2, 24, 273, 274
accuracy in testing, 2, 16, 24, 273, 274
English-language learners, 24, 215, 216, 229, 298
oral reading of/responses to questions, 80, 216, 218
students with disabilities, 24, 198
voluntary national tests, v, 7, 14, 16, 41, 238-243, 291
Reform, see Education reform
Regulation, see Administrative law; Legislation
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 18, 58(n.10), 188, 191, 196
Reliability, 3, 25, 39, 72-73, 80
construct validity and, 74, 75
definitional issues, 39, 71, 72
English-language learners, 225, 297
item response theory, 203
legal issues, 55(n.6)
students with disabilities, 201-202, 203
voluntary national testing, 15, 23
Remedial instruction, 3, 22-23, 133, 279, 285
cost factors, 45
English-language learners, 213
graduation tests, 169, 171, 177, 180, 182-183, 289
promotion/retention in grade and, 6, 115, 116, 132-133, 285, 287
summer school, 42, 115, 116, 124, 127(n.11), 132, 133(n.18), 221, 285, 289
test preparation and, 169, 171, 177, 180, 182-183, 289
teaching to the test vs, 7
tracking and, 92, 97, 104-105, 282
tutors and tutoring, 120, 132, 285
see also Special education
Repetition of grade, see Promotion/retention in grade Social promotion
Reporting, 257-263
graduation tests, 167
mass media, 19-20
students with disabilities, 189, 195, 201
Retaking of tests
graduation tests, 165, 178, 180, 181, 182, 220, 243, 289, 292
promotion/retention in grade, 127(n.11), 132, 133, 135, 288, 291
see also Educable mentally retarded;
Special education
Retention in grade, see Promotion/retention in grade
S
Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT), 19-20, 33, 60, 182, 215, 216, 240
School-based factors
accountability, 2, 5, 15, 16, 29-31, 35, 40, 274, 278
litigation, 21
accreditation, 15
labeling approach to test use, 262
segregation/desegregation, 21, 32, 53, 55-57
School districts
accountability, 2, 5, 35, 274, 278
English-language learners, 217
students with disabilities, 189
discrimination, 64
English-language learners, 213, 217, 222-224
grades, teacher-assigned, 37
graduation tests, 179
multiple measures, 37
promotion/retention in grade, 37
voluntary national testing, 41
Science achievement, 179
English-language learners, 213, 216
Third International Mathematics and Science Study, 7, 18, 174, 241, 290, 291
Scoring and scoring criteria, 3, 14, 74, 259, 262, 278
construct validity, 74-77 (passim), 80
English-language learners, 214, 217, 223, 226, 296, 297, 298
flagging, 201
graduation tests, 166, 177-178, 288, 290
item response theory, 202
multiple criteria and, 6, 97-98
promotion/retention in grade, 123, 124, 125, 129, 286, 287
students with disabilities, accommodations, 197, 199, 200, 201, 202, 206, 293, 295
tracking, 93, 94, 96, 97-98, 123, 239-240, 282, 283
voluntary national tests, 238, 239-243, 290-292
see also Cutscores;
Fairness;
Reliability;
Validity
Secondary school
exit exams, 39, 45, 63, 165, 180-181, 194
retention in grade, 120-121, 129, 130, 137-146, 149-152, 153, 286
see also Dropouts;
Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965;
Graduation requirements
Second International Mathematics Study, 92-93
Second-language speakers, see English-language learners
Segregation/desegregation, 21, 32, 53, 55-57
Sex-based influences, see Gender factors
Shariff v. New York State Education Department, 59, 60
Simmons on Behalf of Simmons v. Hooks, 57
Social factors, see Cultural factors; Race/ethnicity
Social promotion, 6, 14, 22, 26, 41-43, 114-117, 122, 126-127, 133, 136-137, 278, 285, 286
Socioeconomic status, 14
retention in grade, 130
tracking, 92, 95, 98, 100, 103, 105-106, 283
see also Poverty
Spanish-speaking students, see Hispanics
Special education
individualized education programs, 33, 188-189, 191-193
legal issues, 18, 55, 190, 191-192, 193, 194, 195, 204, 294, 295
participation, 190-191, 193-195, 205, 293
social promotion and age-grade retardation, 136
Standardized tests, general, 8, 14, 17, 25-26
historical perspectives, 15, 19, 20-21, 29, 31-33
kindergarten, 119
professionally codified standards, 8, 17, 25, 60, 78, 82-83, 123-124, 179, 199, 247-250, 252, 262, 266, 268, 298, 299
promotion/retention in grade, 116, 123-124, 127-128
state programs, 15
students with disabilities, accommodations, 196-197
tracking, 93-95
see also Intelligence tests;
Psychometrics;
Voluntary national tests;
specific tests
Standards, general, 1, 13-14, 17, 71
education reform, standards-based, 13-14, 15, 36, 132, 199, 206, 273, 288-289
federal vs state, 15
policy strategies and, 29-30
student with disability, qualification as, 190-191, 199
see also Accountability;
Accuracy of measurement;
Fairness;
Performance standards;
Reliability;
Validity
Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, 8, 17, 78, 82, 199, 249-250, 252, 262, 266, 268
State government, 36, 40, 251, 264-265
discrimination, state law, 50, 57-58, 60, 61, 64
English-language learners, 63, 213, 214-224, 229-230, 232, 233
graduation requirements, 37, 38, 39, 163-165, 167, 170, 178, 179, 180-181, 288, 289
end-of-course exams, 181-182, 289, 290
English-language learners, 219-224, 233
students with disabilities, 194
Improving America's Schools Act, 65-66
labeling approach to test use, 262
large-scale achievement tests, 1
minimum competency testing, history, 15, 38-39, 42-43, 57, 163-164
promotion/retention in grade, 115-116, 123, 126, 133, 136, 284
students with disabilities, 33, 189, 193, 194, 195-196, 197, 204, 205, 293
university admission requirements, 33
voluntary national testing, 41
State-level factors and trends, 20
graduation tests, dropouts, 174
retention in grade, 117, 136-137, 138-146
public opinion, 44
Student portfolios, 24, 216, 218, 265, 266, 274
Students with disabilities, 3, 7, 16, 24, 25, 40-41, 188-210, 274, 281, 292-295
accountability, 7, 118, 189, 192, 193, 198, 292
accuracy issues, 7, 193, 198, 201
curriculum, 198
individualized education programs, 33, 188-189, 191-193, 194, 195, 204, 294, 295
discrimination against, 191, 201
dropouts, 189
eligibility, 190-191, 281, 293
exclusion from assessment, 193, 195, 204
item response theory, 202-203
legal issues, 18, 33, 40, 58(n.10), 66, 188-195 (passim), 198, 201, 265, 292
individualized education programs, 33, 188-189, 191-193
legislation, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, 18, 188, 191, 196, 198
Goals 2000, 188, 196, 205, 292
Improving America's Schools Act, 188, 292
Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1997, 18, 33, 40, 188-190, 191-192, 196, 198, 251, 262, 292, 293
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 18, 58(n.10), 188, 191, 196
mathematics tests, 24, 197-198
National Assessment of Educational Progress, 200, 204, 206
participation rates, 24, 190-191, 193, 195, 204-206, 265, 292-294
performance standards, 189-190, 201 202, 203, 292-293
promotion/retention in grade, 125, 126, 193, 198
reliability of tests, 201-202, 203
reporting requirements, 189, 195, 201
validity issues, accommodations, 192, 196, 199-200, 201, 202-203, 205, 206, 293, 294, 295
see also Accommodations/adaptations;
Learning disabilities
Students with limited English proficiency, see English-language learners
Summer school, 42, 115, 116, 124, 127(n.11), 132, 133(n.18), 221, 285, 289
Supreme Court, see Constitutional law
T
Talented students, see Gifted and talented students
Teacher education
graduation tests and, 173
students with disabilities, 190
Teachers
accountability, 1, 2, 5, 15, 16
administration/scoring of tests, fairness issues, 81, 280
attitudes, 5, 14, 103, 284, 287
certification testing, 59(n.15), 60
graduation tests and, 181
promotion/retention decisions, 6, 284
students with disabilities, 189, 192, 195, 199-200
use of tests, general, 33
Teaching methods, see Instructional factors
Teaching to the test, 6-7, 38, 65, 73, 132, 280
Test administration procedures, see Administration procedures, testing
fairness, 79
graduation tests, 169, 171, 177-178, 182-183, 289, 290
adequate notice of testing, 51, 63-64, 163, 289
remedial instruction, 169, 171, 177, 180, 182-183, 289
litigation, 21
tracking, 100-101
validity and, 73
voluntary national tests, 239
see also Curriculum;
Remedial instruction;
Teaching to the test
Texas Assessment of Academic Skills, 46, 115, 171, 217, 221
Third International Mathematics and Science Study, 7, 18, 174, 241, 290, 291
Time factors
English-language learners, 215, 218
graduation tests, adequate notice of testing, 51, 63-64, 163, 289
litigation, duration of, 8, 252, 299
new test introduction and use, gap, 6, 164
test length and time, 24, 195, 199, 203, 206, 216, 218, 219, 293
voluntary national tests, 15, 65
TIMSS, see Third International Mathematics and Science Study
Tracking and placement, 2, 14, 16, 22, 25, 31, 33, 82, 89-113, 114, 123, 282-284
accuracy issues, 97, 99-100, 101, 276
advanced placement, 95, 98, 99, 100, 106, 126, 219, 225, 240, 289, 291
gifted and talented students, 4, 91, 93, 97, 106, 219, 280, 282, 283
African Americans, 100, 105-106
age factors, 98
curriculum and, 103-105
definitional issues, 1, 89-91, 101, 282
demographic factors, 4-5
dropping out and, 102, 104-105
elementary school, 91, 93, 103-104
English-language learners, 4-5, 95, 98, 99, 101, 105-106, 213, 219-220, 224-225, 284, 298
gender factors, 95, 98, 99, 100-101, 281
grades, teacher-assigned, 100
graduation tests, 171
historical perspective on, 15, 91-93
instructional factors, 103, 105
intelligence tests, 53-55, 93-94, 97
international comparisons, 92-93, 282
knowledge access issues, 103-105
legal issues, 50-57 (passim), 198
low-tracking,
English-language learners, 213
impacts of, 5, 101-105, 276, 281, 282
see also Educable mentally retarded
multiple criteria for, 93, 94, 97-98, 100, 279, 284
nature and extent, 91-93
predictive validity, 97-98, 101-102, 240, 283-284
psychometrics, 95-101, 283-284
racial/ethnic factors, 21, 93-94, 95, 98, 99, 100-101, 103, 105-106, 281, 283
remedial education and, 92, 97, 104-105, 282
scoring issues, 93, 94, 96, 97-98, 123, 239-240, 282, 283
secondary school, 91-93, 104, 134
socioeconomic factors, 4-5, 92, 95, 98, 100, 103, 105-106, 283
poverty, 92, 95, 98, 100, 103, 105-106, 283
special education, 93-94, 97, 282
students with disabilities, 98, 198
test preparation/administration procedures, 100-101
validity issues, 96-101, 123, 283
voluntary national tests, 7-8, 25, 239-241, 290, 291, 292
Translation of tests, 216, 218, 219, 221, 222-223, 226, 227, 229-230, 297
Tutors and tutoring, 120, 132, 285
U
Uncommon Measures: Equivalence and Linkage Among Educational Tests, v, 18
United States v. Fordice, 52, 61
V
Validity, 7, 17, 25, 73-78, 261, 275
curriculum, 3, 64-65, 275, 277-278
defined, 2, 3, 23, 39, 71-72, 275
English-language learners, 225, 231, 296, 297
graduation tests, 167-171, 172, 177-178
instructional factors, 3, 64-65, 77, 277
legal requirements, 6, 55(n.6), 60, 63, 64-65, 67
performance standards, general, 73, 76
political factors, 30-31, 35, 39
preparation for testing and, 73
promotion/retention in grade, 123-124, 134-135, 286
students with disabilities, accommodations, 192, 196, 199-200, 201, 202-203, 205, 206, 293, 294, 295
voluntary national tests, release of items, 15
see also Construct validity;
Cutscores;
Predictive validity;
Teaching to the test
Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp., 53
Voluntary national tests, 5, 7-8, 13-15, 41, 65, 238-244, 273, 276, 290-292
Clinton Administration, v, 13-14, 41, 42, 114-115, 284-285
mathematics achievement, v, 8, 14, 16, 41, 238-243, 291
National Assessment of Educational Progress and, 239-243 (passim), 290, 291
poverty, 41
promotion/retention in grade, 7-8, 25, 239, 241-243, 290, 291, 292
racial/ethnic factors, 41
reading achievement, v, 7, 14, 16, 41, 238-243, 291
W
Washington v. Davis, 52
White students, 59(n.15)
dropouts, employment of, 177
graduation tests, 176
minimum competency testing, 56
retention in grade, 119, 122, 130, 148, 155, 156, 157, 281
tracking, 21, 95, 100, 105-106, 281
Writing achievement, 36, 75, 76, 81, 265, 266
English-language learners, 215, 216-217, 221, 223, 229, 298
graduation requirements, 165, 167, 170,