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Economic, technical, and social factors are leading to a nationwide expansion in energy developments. New technologies and innovations are making renewable energy generation more efficient and cost-effective. Growth in energy demand combined with a shift toward a decentralized energy-generation network is moving energy projects away from population centers to locations where indigenous energy resources can be harnessed. As projects are proposed in new areas, potential conflicts with existing uses including airports and aviation have emerged. The purpose of this report is to compile existing literature, data, and ongoing research on physical, visual, and communications systems interference impacts from energy technologies on airports and aviation safety. Information has been collected from both published and unpublished sources, and interviews have been conducted with experts in the fields of avia- tion and energy. The intended audience for the report is airport operators, aircraft pilots, planning managers, energy developers, and legislators and regulators responsible for aviation safety, land use compatibility, airport planning and development, and airport financial self- sustainability. With a comprehensive inventory undertaken of the safety impacts of energy technologies on airports and aviation, gaps in the existing knowledge base are identified along with future research to fill those gaps. These suggestions are summarized at the end of the report. The energy technologies that are the focus of this report are: ⢠Solar Photovoltaic Panels and FarmsâSolar photovoltaic generates electricity from sunlight on light-absorbing panels, with many panels together representing a solar farm. ⢠Concentrating Solar Power PlantsâConcentrating solar power utilizes mirrors to focus and intensify the sunâs heat to boil water and drive a traditional steam turbine for the production of electricity. ⢠Wind Turbine Generators and FarmsâWind turbine generators convert energy from wind to electricity either as single units or multiple units also known as farms. ⢠Traditional Power PlantsâTraditional power plants are fueled by fossil or biofuels and generate base load electricity by boiling water and forcing the steam through a turbine. Cooling systems are necessary to cool the steam for reuse. Peaker power plants are a subset of this category, which are being proposed to start-up and shut down quickly in response to seasonal fluctuations in energy demand. ⢠Electrical Transmission InfrastructureâTransmission infrastructure, including towers and electrical lines, are a fundamental component of any energy project that generates electricity and delivers it to the electrical grid. The potential impacts of energy technologies that have been identified are as follows: ⢠Physical Penetration of Navigable Airspace (also referred to in this report as âairspaceâ) as defined by FAR (Federal Aviation Regulations) Part 77âStructures rising more than 200 ft above ground level or less when located close to airports intrude on defined airspace. SUMMARY INVESTIGATING SAFETY IMPACTS OF ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES ON AIRPORTS AND AVIATION
Potential Impacts Energy Technology Impact Assessment Metric secnerefeRselpmaxEnoitagitiM Physical Penetration of Airspace Solar photovoltaic Concentrating solar power Wind turbine generators Traditional power plants Electrical transmission Part 77 review Affect on minimum en route altitude TERPs penetration of 35 ft or more Appropriate siting Modify structure height Marking and lighting Update air navigation charts Modification to instrument approach procedures Solar PV, Oakland International, California: design accommodates imaginary surface Ivanpah Solar Plant, California: 3 power towers each 459 ft tall; FAA lighting required Bowers Field, Ellensburg Washington: increased approach minimums after Wild Horse Wind Farm constructed Blythe Solar Plant, California: CEC decision decreased height of transmission towers, lights, and ball markers FAA (2010f). Technical Guidance for Evaluating Selected Solar Technologies at Airports FAA (2008a). Procedures for Handling Airspace Matters, Order JO 7400.2G Communications Interference Solar photovoltaic Concentrating solar power Wind turbine generators Traditional power plants Electrical transmission Corona discharges where leaks occur between conductors and insulators New radar facilities Transponders in aircraft Building set-backs from primary radar Radar-absorbing material Correction to STARS configuration Solar PV, Oakland International, California: 500-ft set-back from ASR Shepherd Flats Wind Farm, Oregon: FAA approval contingent on upgrade of primary radar facilities Travis Air Force Base, Fairfield California: study concludes impacts avoided with software upgrade via STARS configuration U.S. Transportation Command (2010). Assessment of Wind Farm Construction on Radar Performance, Cooperative Research and Development Agreement, Research Conclusions and Recommendations Glare Visual Impairment Solar photovoltaic Concentrating solar power Ho Method (see Ho et al. 2009) Anti-reflective coating Modified flight procedures Proper siting and design Notification to aviation community Blythe Solar Plant, California: CEC decision required update of air nautical charts, operational movements during nighttime, and documentation of complaints Ivanpah Solar Plant, California: CEC decision requires California Energy Commission (2010). Blythe Solar Power Project Commission Decision Ho, C., et al., (2009). Hazard Analysis of Glint and Glare from Concentrating Solar Power Plants, Solar PACES 2009 TABLE 1 SUMMARY OF ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES AND POTENTIAL IMPACTS
Positioning mirrors during non- daylight hours Continuous operations and maintenance Specific design requirements Glare avoiding operational planning Procedures for recording and responding to public complaints development of heliostat monitoring plan, and power tower luminescence monitoring plan, update of air nautical charts California Energy Commission (2010). Ivanpah Solar Power Project Commission Decision Thermal Plume Turbulence Concentrating solar power Traditional power plants Australian Method (4.3 m/s velocity signifies potential impact) Notification to aviation community Modified flight procedures Aircraft preserve 1,000-ft buffer from energy facilities Avoid flights directly over the facility Blythe Solar Plant, California: CEC decision required update of air nautical charts Ivanpah Solar Plant, California: flights over facility no lower than 1,350 ft FAA (2006). Safety Risk Analysis of Aircraft Overflight of Industrial Exhaust Plumes (DOT-FAA-AFS- 420-6-1) Vapor Plume Visual Impact Concentrating solar power Traditional power plants Rotor Turbulence Wind turbine generators Trolberg setback (750- ft buffer from wind turbine) rotautcAì.)7002(.late,.N,grobdlorT Line Simulation of Wake of Wind Turbine Operating in Turbulent Inflow,â Journal of Physics: Conference Series 75. The Science of Making Torque from Wind TERPS = Terminal Instrument Procedures; PV = photovoltaic; CEC = California Energy Commission; STARS = Standard Terminal Automation Replacement System; ASR = airport surveillance radar. Aircraft preserve 1,000-ft buffer from energy facilities Avoid flights directly over the facility Ivanpah Solar Plant, California: flights over facility no lower than 1,350 ft TABLE 1 (continued )
⢠Communications InterferenceâElectromagnetic interference can be caused by any large structure that can reflect radar signals causing loss of radar coverage âdownstreamâ or produce false radar signals referred to as clutter. Physical structures can also obstruct view of navigational aids. ⢠Visual Impacts from Glare and GlintâCertain materials produce glint (a momentary flash of bright light) and glare (a continuous source of bright light), which can disrupt pilot and air traffic controller vision. ⢠Visual Impacts from Vapor PlumesâVapor plumes can be caused by the release of power plant exhaust from wet cooling systems resulting in reduced pilot visibility. ⢠Turbulence from Thermal PlumesâThermal plumes are created by power plants using dry cooling systems releasing hot air that rises at a measurable rate and causes air tur- bulence. Unlike a vapor plume, that turbulence cannot be perceived by a pilot, which increases the potential risk to aviators. ⢠Turbulence Downwind of Wind Turbine RotorsâWind turbines disrupt uniform air flow causing unseen turbulence produced downstream of wind turbines. The information collected for this report is summarized in Table 1. The table presents technologies and potential impacts, metrics identified for assessing impacts, example proj- ects, useful references, and data gaps. It was found that a significant amount of research has been conducted, particularly over the past year, on energy technologies and their safety impacts on airports and aviation. Some of the issues (e.g., wind turbine impacts on radar) have received more study than others (e.g., visual impairment of glare). Current activities of government agencies studying these issues are also summarized. In general, data collection efforts have been reactive in response to new proposals for energy facilities. Based on this information, additional field studies may be conducted on each technology that can be used to further define thresholds for assessing impacts and establishing a carrying capacity limit for each technology. Further research may include a baseline inventory of energy facilities for implementing planning and conduction cumulative impact assessment; siting and planning guide books to include mitigation and opportunities for aviation adapta- tion; and glare and thermal plume turbulence assessment tools. 4